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ANNUAL REPORT 


OF THE 


AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


THE YEAR 1920 


IN ONE VOLUME 
AND A SUPPLEMENTAL VOLUME 


WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1925 


FOR 
Meal 


: ADDITIONAL COPIES 
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM 
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 
AT 


$1.00 PER COPY (Cloth). 


LETTER OF SUBMITTAL 


Apri 11, 1924. 
To the Congress of the United States: 

In accordance with the act of incorporation of the American His- 
torical Association, approved January 4, 1889, I have the honor to 
submit to Congress the annual report of the association for the year 
1920. I have the honor to be, 

Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
CuArLEs Secretary. 


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ACT OF INCORPORATION 


Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
United States of America in Congress assembled, That Andrew D. 
White, of Ithaca, in the State of New York; George Bancroft, of 
Washington, in the District of Columbia; Justin Winsor, of Cambridge, 
in the State of Massachusetts; William F. Poole, of Chicago, in the 
State of Illinois; Herbert B. Adams, of Baltimore, in the State of 
Maryland; Clarence W. Bowen, of Brooklyn,in the State of New 
York, their associates and successors, are hereby created, in the 
District of Columbia, a body corporate and politic by the name of the 
American Historical Association, for the promotion of historical 
studies, the collection and preservation of historical manuscripts, and 
for kindred purposes in the interest of American history and of his- 
tory in America. Said association is authorized to hold real and 
personal estate in the District of Columbia so far only as may be 
necessary to its lawful ends to an amount not exceeding $500,000, to 
adopt a constitution, and make by-laws not inconsistent with law. 
Said association shall have its principal office at Washington, in the 
District of Columbia, and may hold its annual meetings in such places 
as the said incorporators shall determine. Said association shall re- 
port annually to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution con- 
cerning its proceedings and the condition of historical study in 
America. Said secretary shall communicate to Congress the whole 
of such report, or such portions thereof as he shall see fit. The Re- 
gents of the Smithsonian Institution are authorized to permit said 
association to deposit its collections, manuscripts, books, pamphlets, 
and other material for history in the Smithsonian Institution or in 
the National Museum at their discretion, upon such conditions and 
under such rules as they shall prescribe. 


[Approved, January 4, 1889.] 


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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 


AMERICAN HisTorICAL ASSOCIATION, 
Washington, D. C., June 30, 1921. 
Str: As provided by law, we have the honor to submit herewith 
the Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the 
year 1920. This report includes the usual statement, in detail, of the 
proceedings of the association during the year 1920 and certain 
important papers read at the annual meeting in December. A sup- 
plemental volume contains a bibliography of writings on American 
‘ History during the year 1920, compiled by Miss Grace Gardner 
Griffin. 
Very respectfully yours, 
H. Barrett LEARNED, 
Chairman of the Commitiee on Publications. 
ALLEN R. Boyp, Editor. 
To the SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Washington, D. C. 


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IV. 


CONTENTS 


. Proceedings of the thirty-fifth annual meeting of the American His- 


. Proceedings of the sixteenth eel meeting of the Pacific Coast 


Branch of the American Historical Association.................. 
Proceedings of the sixteenth annual conference of historical societies. 
Progress in the collection of war records by State war history 
organizations, by Karl Singewald ................--...---- 
Progress in the collection of war history records by State war 
history organizations, by Albert E. McKinley.............. 
The recognition of economic history as a distinct subject, by 


The field for the teaching of economic history i in colleges and 

secondary schools, by Abbott Payson Usher...............- 

Fields of research in economic history: Labor, by Frank T. 

Agriculture as a field for historical research (abstract), by Louis 

V. The origin of the Russian state on the Dnieper, by Mikhail Rostovtsev. 
VI. Recent realignment in the history of medieval medicine and science, 

VII. Latin as an international language in the Middle Ages, by Louis J. 

VIII. The enlightened despotism, by George Matthew Dutcher Remcaeeaes 
IX. The establishment of a new Poland, by Lucius H. Holt............. 
X. The settlement at Plymouth contemplated before 1620, by Lincoln 

XI. Capitalistic and socialistic tendencies in the Puritan colonies, by 

XII. The heritage of the Puritans, by David Saville Muzzey............. 
XII. Philadelphia and the embargo of 1808, by Louis M. Sears........... 
XIV. Agrarian discontent in the South, 1880-1900, by Benjamin B. Kendrick. 


XV. 


XVI. 


XVII. 


XVIII. 


-The development of electromagnetism during the last hundred years, 


Description and travel as source material for the history of early 
agriculture in Pennsylvania, by Rayner W. Kelsey......-...----. 
The early development of agricultural societies in the United States, 
History of the ranch cattle industry in Oklahoma, by Edward Everett 


SUPPLEMENTAL VOLUME 


Writings on American History, 1920, compiled by Grace Gardner Griffin. 


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Page 


31 
II 
113 
129 
135 
145 
153 
155 
156 
159 
161 
163 
173 
179 
187 
199 
209 
223 
237 
251 
265 
273 
283 
293 
307 


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CONSTITUTION 


I 


The name of this society shall be the American Historical Association. 
II 


Its object shall be the promotion of historical studies. 
Ill 


Any person approved by the executive council may become a member by paying 
$3, and after the first year may continue a member by paying an annual fee of $3. 
On payment of $50 any person may become a life member, exempt from fees. Per- 
sons not resident in the United States may be elected as honorary or corresponding 
members and be exempt from the payment of fees. 


IV 


The officers shall be a president, two vice presidents, a secretary, a treasurer, an 
assistant secretary-treasurer, and an editor. 

The president, vice presidents, secretary, and treasurer shall be elected by ballot 
at each regular annual meeting in the manner provided in the by-laws. 

The assistant secretary-treasurer and the editor shall be elected by the executive 
council. They shall perform such duties and receive such compensation as the 


council may determine. 
V 


There shall be an executive council, constituted as follows: 

1. The president, the vice presidents, the secretary, and the treasurer. 

2. Elected members, eight in number, to be chosen annually in the same manner 
as the officers of the association. 

3. The former presidents; but a former president shall be entitled to vote for the 
three years succeeding the expiration of his term as president, and no longer. 


VI 


The executive council shall conduct the business, manage the property, and care 
for the general interests of the association. In the exercise of its proper functions, 
the council may appoint such committees, commissions, and boards as it may deem 
necessary. The council shall make a full report of its activities to the annual meet- 
ing of the association. The association may by vote at any annual meeting instruct 
the executive council to discontinue or enter upon any activity, and may take such 
other action in directing the affairs of the association as it may deem necessary and 
proper. 

VII 

This constitution may be amended at any annual meeting, notice of such amend- 
ment having been given at the previous annual meeting or the proposed amendment 
having received the approval of the executive council. 

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BY-LAWS 


I 


The officers provided for by the constitution shall have the duties and perform 
the functions customarily attached to their respective otlices with such others as 
may from time to time be prescribed. 


II 


A nomination committee of five members shall be chosen at each annual business 
meeting in the manner hereafter provided for the election of officers of the associ- 
ation. At such convenient time prior to the 15th of September as it may deter- 
mine, it shall invite every member to express to it his preference regarding every 
office to be filled by election at the ensuing annual business meeting and regarding 
the composition of the new nominating committee then to be chosen. It shall pub- 
lish and mail to each member at least one month prior to the annual business meet- 
ing such nominations as it may determine upon for each elective office and for the 
next nominating committee. It shall prepare for use at the annual business meet- 
ing an official ballot containing, as candidates for each office or committee member- 
ship to be filled thereat, the names of its nominees and also the names of any other 
nominees which may be proposed to the chairman of the committee in writing by 
20 or more members of the association at least one day before the annual business 
meeting, but such nominations by petition shall not be presented until after the 
committee shall have reported its nominations to the association, as provided for in 
the present by-law. The official ballot shall also provide under each office a blank 
space for voting for such further nominees as any member may present from the 
floor at the time of the election. 

III 


The annual election of officers and the choice of a nominating committee for the 
ensuing year shall be conducted by the use of an official ballot prepared as described 


in by-law IT. 
IV 


The association authorizes the payment of traveling expenses incurred by the 
voting members of the council attending one meeting of that body a year, this 
meeting to be other than that held in connection with the annual meeting of the agso- 
ciation. 

The council may provide for the payment of expenses incurred by the secretary, 
the assistant secretary-treasurer, and the editor in such travel as may be necessary 
to the transaction of the association’s business. 


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AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Organized at Saratoga, N. Y., September 10, 1884. Incorporated by Congress, 
January 4, 1889. 


OFFICERS ELECTED DECEMBER 239, 1920 


PRESIDENT: 
JEAN JULES JUSSERAND, F. B. A. 
French Embassy 
VICE PRESIDENTS: 
CHARLES H. HASKINS, Pa. D. 
Harvard University 
EDWARD P. CHEYNEY, A. M., LL. D. 
University of Pennsylvania 
SECRETARY: 
JOHN SPENCER BASSETT, Pa. D. 
Smith College 
TREASURER: 
CHARLES MOORE, Pa. D. 
Iibrary of Congress 
EXECUTIVE COUNCIL: 


(In addition to the above-named officers) 
(Ex-presidents) 


JAMES FORD RHODES, LL. D., D. Lrrr. 
Boston, Mass. 


JOHN BACH McMASTER, A. M., Pa. D., Lirr. D., LL. D. 
University of Pennsylvania 


SIMEON E. BALDWIN, LL. D. 
New Haven, Conn. 


JOPN FRANKLIN JAMESON, Pu. D., LL. D., Lrrt. D. 
Carnegie Institution of Washington 


GEORGE BURTON ADAMS, Pu. D., Lrrr. D. 
Yale University 


ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Pu. D., LL. D., Lrrt. D. 
Harvard University 


FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER, Pu. D., LL. D., Lirr. D. 
Harvard University 


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14 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


WILLIAM MILLIGAN SLOANE, Pu. D., L. H. D., LL. D. 
Columbia University 


WILLIAM ARCHIBALD DUNNING, Pa. D., LL. D. 
Columbia University 


ANDREW C. McLAUGHLIN, A. M., LL. B., LL. D. 
University of Chicago 


GEORGE LINCOLN BURR, LL. D., Lrrr. D. 
Cornell University 


WORTHINGTON C. FORD, A. M. 
Massachusetts Historical Society 


WILLIAM ROSCOE THAYER, LL. D., Lirr. D., L. H. D. 
Cambridge 


EDWARD CHANNING, Pu. D. 
Harvard University 


(Elected Councilors) 


JAMES T. SHOTWELL, Pu. D. 
Columbia University 


RUTH PUTNAM, B. Litt, 
Washington 
ARTHUR L. CROSS, Pu. D. 
University of Michigan 


SIDNEY B. FAY, Pu. D. 
Smith College 
CARL RUSSELL FISH, Pu. D. 
University of Wisconsin 
CARLTON J. H. HAYES, Pa. D. 


Columbia University 


FREDERIC L. PAXSON, Pua. D. 
University of Wisconsin 


§8T. GEORGE L. SIOUSSAT, Pa. D. 
University of Pennsylvania 


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PACIFIC COAST BRANCH 


OFFICERS ELECTED NOVEMBER 26, 1920 
PRESIDENT: 


ROBERT C. CLARK, Pa. D. 
University of Oregon 
VICE PRESIDENT: 

PAYSON J. TREAT, Pu. D. 
Stanford University 
SECRETARY-TREASURER: 

J.J. VAN NOSTRAND, Jr., Pu. D. 
University of California 
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE: 

(In addition to the above-named officers) 
W. F. BLISS, A. M. 
State Normal School, San Diego 


SARA L. DOLE, A. B. 
Manual Arts High School, Los Angeles 


WALDEMAR C. WESTERGAARD, Pua. D. 


Pomona College 
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TERMS OF OFFICE 


(Deceased officers are marked thus: f) 


EX-PRESIDENTS 


tANDREW DICKSON WHITE, L. H. D., LL. D., D. C. L., 1884-1885. 
{GEORGE BANCROFT, LL. D., 1885-1886. 
tJUSTIN WINSOR, LL. D., 1896-1887. 
t¢WILLIAM FREDERICK POOLE, LL. D., 1887-1888, 
{CHARLES KENDALL ADAMS, LL. D., 1888-1889. 
{JOHN JAY, LL. D., 1889-1890. 
{WILLIAM WIRT HENRY, LL. D., 1890-1891. 
{JAMES BURRILL ANGELL, LL. D., 1891-1893. 
tHENRY ADAMS, LL. D., 1893-1994. 
tGEORGE FRISBIE HOAR, LL. D., 1895. 
+RICHARD SALTER STORRS, D. D., LL. D., 1896. 
t{JAMES SCHOULER, LL. D., 1897. 
+GEORGE PARK FISHER, D. D., LL. D., 1898. 
JAMES FORD RHODES, LL. D., D. Latt., 1999. 
tEDWARD EGGLESTON, L. H. D., 1990. 
{CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, LL. D., 1901. 
tALFRED THAYER MAHAN, D.C. L., LL. D., 1902. 
tHENRY CHARLES LEA, LL. D., 1903. 
{GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C. L., LL. D., 1904. 
JOHN BACH McMASTER, Pu. D., Litt. D., LL. D., 1905. 
SIMEON E. BALDWIN, LL. D., 1906. 
J. FRANKLIN JAMESON, Pu. D., LL. D., Litt. D., 1907. 
GEORGE BURTON ADAMS, Pu. D., Litt. D., 1908 
ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Pu. D., LL. D., Litt. D., 1909. 
FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER, Pu. D., LL. D., Litt. D., 1910. 
WILLIAM MILLIGAN SLOANE, Pu. D., L. H. D., LL. D., 1911 
¢THEODORE ROOSEVELT, LL. D., D.C. L., 1912. 
WILLIAM ARCHIBALD DUNNING, Pu. D., LL. D., 1913. 
ANDREW C. McLAUGHLIN, A. M., LL. B., LL. D., 1914 
tH. MORSE STEPHENS, M. A., Litt. D., 1915. 
GEORGE LINCOLN BURR, LL. D., Litt. D., 1916. 
WORTHINGTON C. FORD, A. M., 1917. 
WILLIAM ROSCOE THAYER, LL. D., Litt. D., L. H. D., 1918-1919. 
EDWARD CHANNING, Pu. D., 1920. 


EX-VICE PRESIDENTS 


tJUSTIN WINSOR, LL. D., 1884-1886. 
{CHARLES KENDALL ADAMS, LL. D., 1884-1888. 
+WILLIAM FREDERICK POOLE, LL. D., 1886-1887. 
tJOHN JAY, LL. D., 1887-1889. 

tWILLIAM WIRT HENRY, LL. D., 1888-1890. 
t{JAMES BURRILL ANGELL, LL. D., 1889-1891. 
{HENRY ADAMS, LL D., 1890-1893. 

tEDWARD GAY MASON, A. M., 1891-1894. 
{GEORGE FRISBIE HOAR, LL. D., 1894. 
tRICHARD SALTER STORRS, D. D., LL. D., 1895. 
tJ AMES SCHOULER, LL. D., 1895-1896. 

{GEORGE PARK FISHER, D. D., LL. D., 1896-1897. 
JAMES FORD RHODES, LL. D., D. Lrrr., 1897-1898. 
tEDWARD EGGLESTON, L. H. D., 1898-1899. 
tMOSES COIT TYLER, L. H. D., LL. D., 1899-1900. 


16 


TERMS OF OFFICE 17 


t{CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, LL. D., 1900. ‘ 
tHERBERT BAXTER ADAMS, Pu. D., LL. D., 1901. 
tALFRED THAYER MAHAN, D.C. L., LL. D., 1901. 
tHENRY CHARLES LEA, LL. D., 1902. 
tGOLDWIN SMITH, D.C. L., LL. D., 1902-1903. 
tEDWARD McCRADY, LL. D., 1903. 
JOHN BACH McMASTER, Pu. D., Litt. D., LL. D., 1904. 
SIMEON E. BALDWIN, LL. D., 1904-1905. 
J. FRANKLIN JAMESON, Pu. D., LL. D., Lrrr. D., 1905-1996. 
GEORGE BURTON ADAMS, Pu. D., Litt. D., 1906-1907. 
ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Pu. D., LL. D., Lirr. D., 1907-1908. 
FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER, Pu. D., LL. D., Lirr. D., 1908-1909, 
WILLIAM MILLIGAN SLOANE, Pu. D., L. H. D., LL. D., 1909-1910. 
{THEODORE ROOSEVELT, LL. D., D.C. L., 1910-1911. 
WILLIAM ARCHIBALD DUNNING, Pu. D., LL. D., 1911-1912. 
ANDREW C. McLAUGHLIN, A. M., LL. B., LL. D.,, 1912-1913. 
+H. MORSE STEPHENS, M. A., Litt. D., 1913-1914. 
GEORGE LINCOLN BURR, LL. D., 1914-1915. 
WORTHINGTON C. FORD, A. M., 1915-1916. 
WILLIAM ROSCOE THAYER, LL. D., Litt. D., L. H. D., 1916-1917. 
EDWARD CHANNING, Pu. D., 1917-1919 
JEAN JULES JUSSERAND, F. B. A., 1918-1920. 


SECRETARIES 


{HERBERT BAXTER ADAMS, Pu. D., LL. D., 1884-1900, 
tA. HOWARD CLARK, A. M., 1889-1908. 

CHARLES HOMER HASKINS, Pu. D., 1900-1913. 
WALDO GIFFORD LELAND, A. M., 1908-1919. 
EVARTS BOUTELL GREENE, Pu. D., 1914-1919. 

JOHN SPENCER BASSETT, Pu. D., 1919- 


TREASURERS 


CLARENCE WINTHROP BOWEN, Pu. D., 1881-1917, 


CHARLES MOORE, Pu. D., 1917- 
CURATOR 


tA. HOWARD CLARK, A. M., 1889-1918. 
EXECUTIVE COUNCIL 


tWILLIAM BABCOCK WEEDEN, A. M., 1884-1886. 
¢{CHARLES DEANE, LL. D., 1884-1887. 
¢{MOSES COIT TYLER, L. H. D., LL. D., 1884-1885. 

EPHRAIM EMERTON, Pu. D., 1884-1885. 

FRANKLIN BOWDITCH DEXTER, A. M., Litt. D., 1885-1887. 
¢WILLIAM FRANCIS ALLEN, A. M., 1885-1887. 
{WILLIAM WIRT HENRY, LL. D., 1886-1888. 
+RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD HAYES, LL. D., 1887-1888. 

JOHN W. BURGESS, Pu. D., LL. D., 1887-1891. 
ARTHUR MARTIN WHEELER, A. M., LL. D., 1887-1889. 
+GEORGE PARK FISHER, D. D., LL. D., 1888-1891. 
{GEORGE BROWN GOODE, LL. D., 1889-1896. 

JOHN GEORGE BOURINOT, C. M. G., D. C. L., LL. D., 1889-1894. 
JOHN BACH McMASTER, Pu. D., Litt. D., LL. D., 1891-1894. 
GEORGE BURTON ADAMS, Pu. D., Lirr. D., 1891-1897; 1898-1901. 
¢THEODORE ROOSEVELT, LL. D., D. C. L., 1894-1895. 
#{JABEZ LAMAR MONROE CURRY, LL. D., 1894-1895. 

tH. MORSE STEPHENS, M. A.,, Lirr. D., 1895-1899 

FREDERICK JACKSON TURNER, Pu. D., LL. D., Lrrr. D., 1895-1899; 1901-1904. 
¢+EDWARD MINOR GALLAUDET, Pu. D., LL. D., 1896-1897. 
{MELVILLE WESTON FULLER, LL. D., 1897-1900. 

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Pu. D., Lrrr. D., 1897-1900. 

ANDREW C. McLAUGHLIN, A. M., LL. B., LL. D., 1898-1901; 1903-1906. 
WILLIAM ARCHIBALD DUNNING, Pu. D., LL. D., 1899-1902. 
{PETER WHITE, A. M., 1899-1902. 


97244°—25——-2 


18 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


J. FRANKLIN JAMESON, Pu. D., LL. D., Litt. D., 1900-1903. 
A. LAWRENCE LOWELL, Pu. D., LL. D., 1900-1903. 
HERBERT PUTNAM, Litt. D., LL. D., 1901-1904. 
GEORGE LINCOLN BURR, LL. D., 1902-1905. 
EDWARD POTTS CHEYNEY, LL. D., 1902-1905 
tEDWARD G. BOURNE, Pu. D., 1903-1906. 
t{GEORGE P. GARRISON, Pu. D., 1904-1907. 
tREUBEN GOLD THWAITES, LL. D., 1904-1907. 
CHARLES McLEAN ANDREWS, Pu. D., L. H. D., 1905-1908. 
JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON, Pu. D., 1905-1908. 
WORTHINGTON CHAUNCEY FORD, A. M., 1906-1909. 
WILLIAM MacDONALD, Pu. D., LL. D., 1906-1909. 
MAX FARRAND, Pu. D., 1907-1910. 
FRANK HEYWOOD HODDER, Pu. M., 1907-1910. 
EVARTS BOUTELL GREENE, Pu. D., 1908-1911. 
CHARLES HENRY HULL, Pu. D., 1908-1911. 
FRANKLIN LAFAYETTE RILEY, A. M., PH. D., 1909-1912. 
EDWIN ERLE SPARKS, Pu. D., LL. D., 1909-1912. 
JAMES ALBERT WOODBURN, Pu. D., LL. D., 1910-1913. 
FRED MORROW FLING, Pk. D., 1910-1913. 
HERMAN VANDENBURG AMES, Pu. D., 1911-1914, 
DANA CARLETON MUNRO, A. M., 1911-1914. 
ARCHIBALD CARY COOLIDGE, Pu. D., 1912-1914. 
JOHN MARTIN VINCENT, Pu. D., LL. D., 1912-1915. 
FREDERIC BANCROFT, Pu. D., LL. D., 1913-1915. 
CHARLES HOMER HASKINS, Pu. D., 1913-1916. 
EUGENE C. BARKER, Pu. D., 1914-1917. 
GUY S. FORD, B. L., Pu. D., 1914-1917. 
ULRICH B. PHILLIPS, Px. D., 1914-1917. 
LUCY M. SALMON, A. M., L. H. D., 1915-1919. 
SAMUEL B. HARDING, Pu. D., 1915-1919. 
HENRY E. BOURNE, A. B., B. D., L. H. D., 1916-1920. 
CHARLES MOORE, Pu. D., 1916-1917. 
GEORGE M. WRONG, M. A., 1916-1920. 
HERBERT E. BOLTON, B. L., Pu. D., 1917-1920. 
WILLIAM F. DODD, Pu. D., 1917-1920. 
WALTER L. FLEMING, M. S., Pu. D., 1917-1920. 
WILLIAN E. LINGELBACH, Pu. D., 1917-1920. 
JAMES T. SHOTWELL, Pu. D., 1919- 
RUTH PUTNAM, B. Lirr., 1919- 
ARTHUR L. CROSS, Pu. D., 1920- 
SIDNEY B. FAY, Pu. D., 1920- 
CARL RUSSELL FISH, Pu. D., 1920- 
CARLTON J. H. HAYES, Pu. D., 1920- 
FREDERIC L. PAXSON, Pu. D., 1920- 
ST. GEORGE L, SIOUSSAT, Pu. D., 1920- 


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OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 1921 


OFFICERS 


President.—Jean Jules Jusserand, the French Embassy, Washington, D. C. 

First vice president.—Charles H. Haskins, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 

Second vice president.—Edward P. Cheyney, University of Pennsylvania, Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

Secretary.—John S. Bassett, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. 

Treasurer.—Charles Moore, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. 

Assistant secretary-treasurer.—Patty W. Washington, 1140 Woodward Building, Wash- 
ington, 

Editor.—Allen R. Boyd, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C, 


EXECUTIVE COUNCIL 
(in addition to above) 


Elected members.—Arthur L. Cross, 705 South State Street, Ann Arbor, Mich.; 
Sidney B. Fay, 32 Paradise Road, Northampton, Mass.; Carl Russell Fish, 244 Lake 
Lawn Place, Madison, Wis.; Carlton J. H. Hayes, Columbia University, New York, 
N. Y.; Frederic L. Paxson, 2122 Van Hise Avenue, Madison, Wis.; Ruth Putnam, 
2025 O Street NW., Washington, D. C.; James T. Shotwell, 407 West One hundred 
and seventeenth Street, New York, N. Y.; St. George L. Sioussat, University of 
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Ex-presidents.—James Ford Rhodes, 392 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass.; John Bach 
McMaster, 2109 Delancy Place, Philadelphia, Pa.; Simeon E. Baldwin, 69 Church 
Street, New Haven, Conn.; J. Franklin Jameson, 1140 Woodward Buildmg, Wash- 
ington, D. C.; George Burton Adams, 57 Edgehill Road, New Haven, Conn.; Albert 
Bushnell Hart, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Frederick J. Turner, 7 Phil- 
lips Place, Cambridge, Mass.; William M. Sloane, Princeton, N. J.; William A. 
Dunning, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.; Andrew ©. McLaughlin, Univer- 
sity of Chicago, Chicago Ill.; George L. Burr, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.; 
Worthington C. Ford, 1154 Boylston Street, Boston, Mass.; William Roscoe Thayer, 
8 Berkeley Street, Cambridge, Mass.; Edward Channing, Harvard University, Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 


STANDING EXECUTIVE COMMITTEES OF THE COUNCIL 


Committee on agenda.—Charles H. Haskins, chairman (ex officio); Jean Jules 
Jusserand, Edward P. Cheyney (ex officio), John §S. Bassett (ex officio), Charles 
Moore (ex officio), Arthur L. Cross, Sidney B. Fay, Carlton J. H. Hayes, Frederic L. 
Paxson. 

Committee on meetings and relations.—John §. Bassett, chairman; Edward Channing, 
Carl Russell Fish, James T. Shotwell, Ruth Putnam. 

Committee on finance.—Charles Moore, chairman; John S. Bassett, Sidney B. Fay, 
Frederic L. Paxson, St. George L. Sioussat. 

Committee on appointments.—Jean Jules Jusserand, chairman; John S. Bassett, 
Edward P. Cheyney, Car] Russell Fish, Carlton J. H. Hayes. 


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20 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


SPECIAL COMMITTEES TO REPORT TO THE COUNCIL 


Committee on disposition of records.—Waldo G. Leland, chairman, 1140 Woodward 
Building, Washington, D. C.; H. Barrett Learned, 2123 Bancroft Place, Washington, 
D. C.; C. O. Paullin, 1025 Fifteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C. 

Committee to formulate rules for the George L. Beer prize.—William A. Dunning, 
chairman, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.; Marshall S. Brown, 19 Fairview 
Street, Yonkers, N. Y.; Edward S. Corwin, 115 Prospect Avenue, Princeton, N. J. 

Commitiee on nominations.—Frank H. Hodder, chairman, 1115 Louisiana Street, 
Lawrence, Kans.; Henry E. Bourne, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; 
William E. Dodd, 5757 Blackstone Avenue, Chicago, Ill.; Eloise Ellery, Vassar 
College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y.; William E. Lingelbach, University of Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 


STANDING COMMITTEES OF THE ASSOCIATION 


Committee on program for the thirty-sixth annual meeting.—Evarts B. Greene, chair- 
man, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. (appointed for one year); Charles Seymour, 
127 Everit Street, New Haven, Conn. (appointed for two years); Walter L. Fleming, 
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn. (appointed for three years); Thomas M. 
Marshall, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.; Norman M. Trenholme, Univer- 
sity of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. Ex officio: Nils Andreas Olsen, secretary of the Agri- 
cultural History Society, Bureau of Farm Management, Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C.; John C. Parish, secretary of the Conference of Historical Socie- 
ties, State Historical Society of Iowa, lowa City, Iowa. 

Committee on local arrangements, thirty-sixth annual meeting.—William K. Bixby, 
chairman, Kings Highway and Lindell Avenue, St. Louis, Mo.; Mrs. Nettie H. 
Beauregard, Jefferson Memorial Building, St. Louis, Mo.; Ralph P. Bieber, Wash- 
ington University, St. Louis, Mo.; Stella M. Drumm, Jefferson Memorial Building, 
St. Louis, Mo.: David R. Francis, 214 North Fourth Street, St. Louis, Mo.; Benjamin 
Gratz, Rialto Building, St. Louis, Mo.; John H. Gundlach, 3615 North Broadway, 
St. Louis, Mo.; Breckinridge Jones, 45 Portland Place, St. Louis, Mo.; Mrs. Robert 
McKittrick Jones, 6 Westmoreland Place, St. Louis, Mo.; Breckinridge Long, 5145 
Lindell Boulevard, St. Louis, Mo.; Mrs. N. A. McMillan, 23 Portland Place, St. 
Louis, Mo.; Thomas M. Marshall, Washington University, St. Louis,Mo.; Charles 
P. Pettus, American Trust Co., St. Louis, Mo.; George R. Throop, Washington 
University, St. Louis, Mo. 

Board of editors of the American Historical Review.—J. Franklin Jameson, managing 
editor, 1140 Woodward Building, Washington, D. C. (term expires 1925); Guy Stan- 
ton Ford, chairman, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. (1926); Archibald 
C. Coolidge, 4 Randolph Hall, Cambridge, Mass. (1924); Williston Walker, Yale Uni- 
versity, New Haven, Conn. (1923); Carl Becker, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. 
(1922); Claude H. Van Tyne, 1942 Cambridge Road, Ann Arbor, Mich. (1921). 

Historical manuscripts commission.—Justir H. Smith, chairman, 7 West Forty-third 
Street, New York, N. Y.; Annie H. Abel, 811 North M Street, Aberdeen, Wash., 
Eugene C. Barker, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.; Robert P. Brooks, University 
of Georgia, Athens, Ga.; Logan Esarey, Bloomington, Ind.; Gaillard Hunt, Department 
of State, Washington, D.C. 

Committee on the Justin Winsor prize—Clive Day, chairman, Yale University, New 
Haven, Conn.; Isaac J. Cox, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.; Thomas F, 
Moran, Purdue University, West la Fayette, Ind.; Bernard C. Steiner, Enoch Pratt 
Free Library, Baltimore, Md.; William W. Sweet, 632 East Washington Street, Green- 
castle, Ind. 

Committee on the Herbert Baxter Adams prize.—Conyers Read, chairman, 1218 
Snyder Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa.; Charles H. MclIlwain, 19 Francis Avenue, Cam- 


OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 91 


bridge, Mass.; David S. Muzzey, 492 Van Cortlandt Park Avenue, Yonkers, N. Y. 
Nellie Neilson, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass.; Bernadotte E. Schmitt, 
1938 East One hundred and sixteenth Street, Cleveland, Ohio; Wilbur H. Siebert, 
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. 

Committee on publications (all ex officio except the chairman).—H. Barrett Learned, 
chairman, 2123 Bancroft Place, Washington, D. C.; Allen R. Boyd, secretary, Library 
of Congress, Washington, D. C.; John 8. Bassett, Smith College, Northampton, Mass.; 
J. Franklin Jameson, 1140 Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.; Justin H. Smith, 
7 West Forty-third Street, New York, N. Y.; Rodney H. True, secretary Agricultural 
History Society, Macfarlane Hall of Botany, University of Pennsylvania, Philadel- 
phia, Pa. 

Committee on membership.—Thomas J. Wertenbaker, chairman, 111 Fitz Randolph 
Road, Princeton, N. J.; Louise Fargo Brown, 263 Mill Street, Poughkeepsie, N. Y.; 
Eugene H. Byrne, 240 Lake Lawn Place, Madison, Wis.; A. C. Krey, University of 
Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; Frank E. Melvin, 737 Maine Street, Lawrence, 
Kans.; Richard A. Newhall, 353 Ellsworth Avenue, New Haven, Conn.; Charles W. 
Ramedell, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.; Arthur P. Scott, University of Chicago, 
Chicago, Ill.; J. J. Van Nostrand, jr., University of California, Berkeley, Calif.; James 
E. Winston, Sophie Newcomb College, New Orleans, La.; George F. Zook, Bureau 
of Education, Washington, D. C. Associate members: Milledge L. Bonham, jr., 
Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y.; Henry E. Bourne, Western Reserve University, 
Cleveland, Ohio; Julian P. Bretz, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.; Robert P. 
Brooks, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga.; Sarah A. Dynes, State Normal School, 
Trenton, N. J.; Austin P. Evans, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.; J. 
Montgomery Gambrill, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.; 
Sheldon J. Howe, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.; M. Berna Hunt, 127 
Summit Avenue, Jersey City, N. J.; Laurence M. Larson, University of Illinois, 
Urbana, Ill.; John H. Logan, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J.; Margaret J. 
Mitchell, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.; Laurence B. Packard, University 
of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y.; George Petrie, Auburn, Ala.; Walter Prichard, Baton 
Rouge, La.; Charles H. Rammelkamp, Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill.; Morgan P. 
Robinson, 113 South Third Street, Richmond, Va.; Louis M. Sears, Purdue Univer- 
sity, West La Fayette, Ind.; Augustus H. Shearer, the Grosvenor Library, Buffalo, 
N. Y.; Earl E. Sperry, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y.; David Y. Thomas, 
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark.; Frederic L. Thompson, 63 South Pleasant 
Street, Amherst, Mass.; Norman M. Trenholme, University of Missouri, Columbia, 
Mo.; James A. Woodburn, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.; Jesse E. Wrench, 
1815 University Avenue, Columbia, Mo.; John P. Wynne, Agricultural College, Miss. 

Conference of historical societies.—George S. Godard, chairman,' Connecticut State 
Library, Hartford, Conn.; John C. Parish, secretary State Historical Society of Iowa, 
Iowa City, Iowa. 

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE CONFERENCE 


Committee on bibliography of historical societies.—Joseph Schafer, chairman, State Historical 
Society of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; Julius 11. Tuttle, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, 
Mass.; A. P. C. Griffin, Chief Assistant Librarian, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 

Committee on handbook of historical societies.—George N. Fuller, secretary of Michigan Historical 
Commission, Lansing, Mich.; Solon J. Buck, superintendent of Minnesota Historical Society, St. 
Paul, Minn.; John C, Parish, State Historical Society of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 


Committee on national archives.—J. Franklin Jameson, chairman, 1140 Woodward 
Building, Washington D. C.; Charles Moore, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.; 
Col. Oliver L. Spaulding, jr., United States Army, Chief of Historical Branch, General 
Staff, Washington, D. C. 


1Elected at the business meeting of the conference of historical societies. 


22 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Committee on bibliography.—George M. Dutcher, chairman, Wesleyan University, 
Middletown, Conn.; William H. Allison, Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y.; Sidney 
B. Fay, 32 Paradise Road, Northampton, Mass.; Augustus H. Shearer, the Grosvenor 
Library, Buffalo, N. Y.; Henry R. Shipman, 27 Mercer Street, Princeton, N. J. 

Subcommittee on the bibliography of American travel.—Solon J. Buck, Minnesota 
Historical Society, St. Paul, Minn.; M. M. Quaife, State Historical Library, Madison, 
Wis.; Benjamin F. Shambaugh, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. 

Public archives commission.—Victor H. Paltsits, chairman, 48 Whitson Street, Forest 
Hills Gardens, Long Island, N. Y.; Solon J. Buck, Minnesota Historical Society, St. 
Paul, Minn.; R. D. W. Connor, North Carolina Historical Commission, Raleigh, N. C.; 
Waldo G. Leland, 1140 Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.; Arnold J. F. van 
Laer, 433 Western Avenue, Albany, N. Y. 

Committee on obtaining transcripts from foreign archives.—J. Franklin Jameson, 
chairman, 1140 Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.; Charles M. Andrews, 424 St. 
Ronan Street, New Haven, Conn.; Waldo G. Leland, 1140 Woodward Building, 
Washington, D. C. 

Committee on military history.—Brig. Gen. Eben Swift, United States Army, retired, 
chairman, 1823 Nineteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C.; Allen R. Boyd, Library 
of Congress, Washington, D. C.; R. B. House, North Carolina Historical Commission, 
Raleigh, N. C.; Eben Putnam, Wellesley Farms, Mass.; Col. Oliver L. Spaulding, jr., 
United States Army, Chief of Historical Branch, General Staff, Washington, D. C. 

Commiitee on hereditary patriotic societics.—Dixon R. Fox, chairman, Columbia 
University, New York, N. Y.; Natalie S. Lincoln, editor D. A. R., Memorial Con- 
tinental Hall, Washington, D. C.; Harry Brent Mackoy, Covington, Ky.; Mrs. 
Annie L. Sioussat, Arundel Club, Baltimore, Md.; R. C. Ballard Thruston, 1000 
Coiumbia Building, Louisville, Ky. 

Committee on service.—J. Franklin Jameson, chairman, 1140 Woodward Building, 
Washington, D. C.; Elbert J. Benton, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; 
Clarence 8S. Brigham, American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass.; Worthington 
C. Ford, Massachusetts Historical Society, 1154 Boylston Street, Boston, Mass.; 
Arthur C. Howland, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Albert E. Mc- 
Kinley, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; James Sullivan, State Edu- 
cation Building, Albany, N. Y. 

Board of editors of The Historical Outlook.—Albert E. McKinley, manazing editor, 
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Edgar Dawson, Hunter College, New 
York, N. Y.; Sarah A. Dynes, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.; Daniel C. 
Knowlton, the Lincoln School, 646 Park Avenue, New York, N. Y.; Laurence M. 
Larson, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.; William L. Westermann, 116 Schuyler 
Place, Ithaca, N. Y. 

Committee on history teaching in the schools.—Henry Johnson, chairman, Teachers 
College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.; Henry E. Bourne, Western Reserve 
University, Cleveland, Ohio; Philip P. Chase, 241 Highland Street, Milton, Mass.; 
Guy Stanton Ford, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; Daniel C. Knowl- 
ton, the Lincoln School, 646 Park Avenue, New York, N. Y.; Albert E. McKinley, 
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Eugene M. Violette, Kirksville, Mo. 

SPECIAL COMMITTEES OF THE ASSOCIATION 

Committee on bibliography of modern English history.—Edward P. Cheyney, chair- 
man, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Arthur L. Cross, 705 South 
State Street, Ann Arbor, Mich.; Roger B. Merriman, 175 Brattle Street, Cambridge, 
Mass.; Wallace Notestein, 237 Goldwin Smith Hall, Ithaca, N. Y.; Conyers Read, 
1218 Snyder Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa. 


OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 23 


Committee on the historical congress at Rio de Janeiro.—Bernard Moses, honorary 
chairman, care London Co. and Westminster Bank, 22 Place Vendome, Paris, 
France; Percy A. Martin, acting chairman, Leland Stanford Junior University, 
Stanford University, Calif.; Julius Klein, secretary, Bureau of Foreign and Do- 
mestic Commerce, Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C.; Charles Lyon 
Chandler, Corn Exchange National Bank, Philadelphia, Pa.; Charles H. Cun- 
ningham, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.; Manoel de Oliveira Jima, 3536 
Thirteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C.; Edwin V. Morgan, American Embassy, 
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Constantine E. McGuire, Inter-American High Commission, 
Washington, D. C.; William L. Schurz, 606 East Ann Street, Ann Arbor, Mich. 

Committee on the documentary historical publications of the United States.—J. Frank- 
lin Jameson, chairman, 1140 Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.; Charles Moore, 
Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. 

Committee on the writing of history—Ambassador Jean Jules Jusserand, chairman, 
French Embassy, Washington, D. C.; Charles W. Colby, 253 Broadway, New York, 
N. Y.; Wilbur C. Abbott, 219 Livingston Street, New Haven, Conn. 

Committee to cooperate with the Peoples of America Society in the study of race 
elements in the United States.—John S. Bassett, chairman; Frederic L. Paxson. 


ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITIES 


The American Historical Association is the national organization for the promotion 
of historical writing and studies in the United States. It was founded in 1884 by a 
group of representative scholars, and in 1889 was chartered by Congress. Its national 
character is emphasized by fixing its principal oflice in Washington and by provid- 
ing for the publication of its annual reports by the United States Government through 
the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. The membership of the association, 
at present about 2,500, is drawn from every State in the Union, as well as from Can- 
ada and South America. It includes representatives of all the professions and many 
of the various business and commercial pursuits. ‘To all who desire to promote the 
development of history—local, national, or general—and to all who believe that a 
correct knowledge of the past is essential to a right understanding of the present the 
association makes a strong appeal through its publications and other activities. 

The meetings of the association are held annually during the last week in Decem- 
ber in cities so chosen as to accommodate in turn the members living in different 
parts of the country, and the average attendance is about 400. The meetings afford 
an opportunity for members to become personally acquainted and to discuss matters 
in which they have a common interest. 

The primcipal publications of the association are the annual reportand the Ameri- 
can Historical Review. The former, usually in two volumes, is printed for the asso- 
ciation by the Government and is distributed free to all members who desire it. It 
contains the proceedings of the association, including the more important papers 
read at the annual meetings, as well as valuable collections of documents, edited by 
the historical manuscripts commission; reports on American archives, prepared by 
the public archives commission; bibliographical contributions; reports on history 
teaching, on the activities of historical societies, and other agencies, etc.; and an 
annual group of papers on agricultural history contributed by the Agricultural His- 
tory Society. The American Historical Review is the official organ of the associa- 
tion and the recognized organ of the historical profession in the United States. It is 
published quarterly, each number containing about 200 pages. It presents to the reader 
authoritative articles, critical reviews of important new works on history, notices of 
inedited documents, and the news of all other kinds of historical activities. The 
Review is indispensable to all who wish to keep abreast of the progress of historical 
scholarship, and is of much value and interest to the general reader. It is distributed 
free to all members of the association. 

For the encouragement of historical research the association offers two biennial 
prizes, each of $200, for the best printed or manuscript monograph in the English 
language submitted by a writer residing in the Western Hemisphere who has not 
achieved an established reputation. The Justin Winsor prize, offered in the even 
years, is awarded to an essay in the history of the Western Hemisphere, including 
the insular possessions of the United States. In odd years the Herbert Baxter 
Adams prize is awarded for an essay in the history of the Eastern Hemisphere. 

To the subject of history teaching the association has devoted much and consistent 
attention through conferences held at the annual meetings, the investigations of com- 
mittees, and the preparation of reports. The association appoints the board of 


24 


ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITIES 25 


editors of The Historical Outlook, thus assuming a certain responsibility for that 
valuable organ of the history-teaching profession. At the close of the war a special 
committee was appointed on the revision of the historical program in all schools under 
college grade. 

The association maintains close relations with the State and local historical societies 
through a conference organized under the auspices of the association and holding a 
meeting each year in connection with the annual meeting of the association. In this 
meeting of delegates the various societies discuss such problems as the collection and 
editing of historical material, the maintenance of museums and libraries, the fostering 
of popular interest in historical matters, the marking of sites, the observance of 
historical anniversaries, etc. The proceedings of the conference are printed in the 
annual reports of the association. 

The Pacific Coast Branch of the association, organized in 1904, affords an opportu- 
nity for the members living in the Far West to have meetings and an organization of 
their own while retaining full membership in the parent body. In 1915 the associa- 
tion met with the branch in San Francisco, Berkeley, and Palo Alto in celebration 
of the opening of the Panama Canal. The proceedings of this meeting, devoted to 
the history of the Pacific and the countries about it, have been published in a sepa- 
rate volume. 

From the first the association has pursued the policy of inviting to its membership 
not only those professionally or otherwise actively engaged in historical work, but 
also those whose interest in history or in the advancement of historical science is 
such that they wish to ally themselves with the association in the furtherance of 
its various objects. Thus the association counts among its members lawyers, clergy- 
men, editors, publishers, physicians, officers of the Army and Navy, merchar ts, 
bankers, and farmers, all of whom find material of especial interest in the publica- 
tions of the association. 

Membership in the association is obtained through election by the executive council, 
upon nomination by a member or by direct application. The annual dues are $3, 
there being no initiation fee. The fee for life membership is $50, which secures 
exemption from all annual dues. 

Inquiries respecting the association, its work, publications, prizes, meetings, 
memberships, etc., should be addressed to the assistant secretary of the association 
at 1140 Woodward Building, Washington, D. C., from whom they will receive prompt 
attention. 


i 


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HISTORICAL PRIZES 


WINSOR AND ADAMS PRIZES 


For the purpose of encouraging historical research, the American Historical Associ- 
ation offers two prizes, each prize of $200—the Justin Winsor prize in American 
history and the Herbert Baxter Adams prize in the history of the Eastern Hemi- 
sphere. The Winsor prize is offered in the even years (as heretofore), and the Adams 
prize in the odd years. Both prizes are designed to encourage writers who have 
not published previously any considerable work or obtained an established reputa- 
tion. Either prize shall be awarded for an excellent monograph or essay, printed 
or in manuscript, submitted to or selected by the committee of award. Monographs 
must be submitted on or before July 1 of the given year. In the case of a printed 
monograph the date of publication must fall within a period of two years prior to 
July 1. A monograph to which a prize has been awarded in manuscript may, if it 
is deemed in all respects available, be published in the annual report of the associ- 
ation. Competition shall be limited to monographs written or published in the 
English language by writers of the Western Hemisphere. 

In making the award the committee will consider not only research, accuracy, and 
originality, but also clearness of expression and logical arrangement. The successful 
monograph must reveal marked excellence of style. Its subject matter should 
afford a distinct contribution to knowledge of a sort beyond that having merely per- 
sonal or local interest. The monograph must conform to the accepted canons of 
historical research and criticism. A manuscript—including text, notes, bibliography, 
appendices, etc.—must not exceed 100,000 words if designed for publication in the 
annual report of the association. 

The Justin Winsor prize.—The monograph must be based upon independent and 
original investigationin American history. The phrase ‘‘American history” includes 
the history of the United States and other countries of the Western Hemisphere. 
The monograph may deal with any aspect or phase of that history. 

The Herbert Baxter Adams prize.—The monograph must be based upon independ- 
ent and original investigation in the history of the Eastern Hemisphere. The mono- 
graph may deal with any aspect or phase of that history, as in the case of the Winsor 
prize. 

Inquiries regarding these prizes should be addressed to the chairmen of the respec- 
tive committees, or to the secretary of the association, 1140 Woodward Building, 
Washington, D.C. 

The Justin Winsor prize (which until 1906 was offered annually) has been awarded 
to the following: 

1896. Herman V. Ames: ‘‘The proposed amendments to the Constitution of the 
United States.” 

1900. William A. Schaper: ‘‘Sectionalism and representation in South Carolina”’; 
with honorable mention of Mary S. Locke: ‘‘Antislavery sentiment before 1808.’’ 

1901. Ulrich B. Phillips: ‘‘Georgia and State rights’’; with honorable mention of 
M. Louise Green: ‘‘The struggle for religious liberty in Connecticut.” 


27 


28 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


1902. Charles McCarthy: ‘‘The Anti-Masonic Party’; with honorable mention of 
W. Roy Smith: ‘South Carolina as a royal province.”’ 

1903. Louise Phelps Kellogg: ‘‘The American colonial charter: A study of its 
relation to English administration, chiefly after 1688.’’ 

1904. William R. Manning: ‘‘The Nootka Sound controversy ’’; with honorable 
mention of C. O. Paullin: ‘‘The Navy of the American Revolution.”’ 

1906. Annie Heloise Abel: ‘‘ The history of events resulting in Indian consolidation 
west of the Mississippi River.”’ 

1908. Clarence Edwin Carter: ‘‘ Great Britain and the Illinois country, 1765-1774 ”; 
with honorable mention of Charles Henry Ambler: ‘‘Sectionalism in Virginia, 1776- 
1861.”’ 

1910. Edward Raymond Turner: ‘‘The Negro in Pennsylvania: Slavery—servi- 
tude—freedom, 1639-1861. ”’ 

1912. Arthur Charles Cole: ‘‘The Whig Party in the South.” 

1914. Mary W. Williams: ‘‘ Anglo-American Isthmian diplomacy, 1815-1915.” 

1916. Richard J. Purcell: ‘‘ Connecticut in transition, 1775-1818.” 

1918. Arthur M. Schlesinger: ‘‘ The Colonial Merchants and the American Revo- 
lution, 1763-1776.”’ (Columbia University Studies in History, etc., No. 182.) 

From 1897 to 1899 and in 1905 the Justin Winsor prize was not awarded. 

The Herbert Baxter Adams prize has been awarded to: 

1905. David S. Muzzey: ‘The Spiritual Franciscans’’; with honorable mention 
of Eloise Ellery: ‘‘ Jean Pierre Brissot.’’ 

1907. In equal division, Edward B. Krehbiel, ‘‘The Interdict: Its history and its 
operation, with especial attention to the time of Pope Innocent III’’; and William S. 
Robertson, ‘ Francisco de Miranda and the revolutionizing of Spanish America.”’ 

1909. Wallace Notestein: ‘‘ A history of witchcraft in England from 1558 to 1718.” 

1911. Louise Fargo Brown: ‘The political activities of the Baptists and Fifth 
Monarchy men in England during the Interregnum.”’ 

1913. Violet Barbour: ‘‘ Henry Bennet, Earl of Arlington.” 

1915. Theodore C. Pease: ‘The leveller movement’’; with honorable mention of 
F. ©. Melvin: ‘‘ Napoleon’s system of licensed navigation, 1806-1814.’’ 

1917. Frederick L. Nussbaum: ‘‘G. J. A. Ducher: An essay on the political his- 
tory of mercantilism during the French Revolution.”’ 

1919. Williams Thomas Morgan: ‘‘English political parties and leaders in the reign 
of Queen Anne, 1702-1710.’’ 

The essays of Messrs. Muzzey, Krehbiel, Carter, Notestein, Turner, Cole, Pease, 
Purcell, Miss Brown, Miss Barbour, and Miss Williams have been published by the 
association in a series of separate volumes. The earlier Winsor prize essays were 
printed in the annual reports. 


AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION STATISTICS OF 
MEMBERSHIP 


DECEMBER 15, 1920 


I. GENERAL 


Total paid membership, including life members....................--.----- 2,074 


II. By Regions 


New England: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode 


North Atlantic: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, 

South Atlantic: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida... 138 
North Central: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin ................ 507 


South Central: Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia... 74 
West Central: Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, North Dakota, 


South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas.....................--- 289 

Pacific coast: Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Idaho, Utah, Ne- 
vada, Arizona, Washington, Oregon, California...............--.seseeeeeee 240 
Territories: Porto Rico, Alaska, Hawaii, Philippine Islands................- 5 
Other countries. ....... 94 
2, 524 


29 


i 


80 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 
III. By Srares 
Members | New mem- Members |New mem- 
bers, 1920 bers, 1920 
12 5 || New Jersey.......... 69 4 
New Mexico ........- 7 1 
| North Carolina....... 28 5 
A 13 21 | North Dakota........ 8 2 
18 125 26 
Connecticut .......... 88 6 || Oklahoma ........... 14 3 
Delaware ..........-.. 11 18 3 
District of Columbia. . . 105 14 || Pennsylvania ........ 172 12 
0 SS 7 1 | South Carolina....... 18 1 
Illinois ........ ee rr 178 16 | South Dakota........ 12 3 
13 1 | Washington..........! 23 1 
ee 57 7 || West Virginia........ | 19 3 
Massachusetts ........ 242 17 || Wisconsin ........... 63 6 
Minnesota ...........- 50 6 || Canada .............. 31 2 
43 2 || South America....... 
6 1 | 56 6 
New Hampslhire....... 2 2 | 


| 
| | 


], PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE 
AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Washington, D. C., December 27-30, 1920 


31 


i 4 
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| 
| 

SEB 


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THE MEETING OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION AT 
WASHINGTON, D. 


Counting 2 meetings which where held partly in Washington and 
partly in Baltimore, Md., and Richmond, Va., respectively, 12 of the 
35 annual meetings of the American Historical Association have been 
held in the National Capital—that of 1886, presided over by the vener- 
able George Bancroft, and those of 1888-1891, inclusive, of 1894 and 
1895, of 1901, 1905, 1908,1915, and 1920. The act of January 4, 1889, 
incorporating the society, provides that it shall have its principal office 
at Washington, though it may hold its annual meetings where it 
pleases. Other provisions of the act, concerning relations with the 
Smithsonian Institution, emphasize the Washington connection, and 
the association is always entitled to consider itself more distinctly at 
home in Washington than in any other city, and to meet there without 
specific invitation, though always assured of cordial welcome by the 
resident members. Undersuch circumstances, if the resident members 
are obliged to feel that they have done less for the entertainment of 
their fellow members on occasion of the annual meeting than has been 
done in some other cities, they console themselves with the reflection 
that Washington is the society’s legal home, that every citizen of the 
United States has his or her share in its ownership, and that the city 
has many intrinsic attractions of its own, independent of whatever 
pleasures might be devised to accompany a professional gathering of 
historical scholars. Not the least of these attractions is a winter cli- 
mate milder than that of most of the cities where the association has 
met; but there are also the buildings and other sights of Washington, 
and, an attraction having especial drawing power for historians, the 
printed and manuscript treasures of the Library of Congress and the 
archives—if in their present condition they deserve to be called 
archives—of the National Government. 

By whatever attractions drawn, the number of members attending 
the thirty-fifth meeting, December 28-30, 1920, was much greater than 
had been expected. At the Washington meeting of 1915 the registra- 
tion was 430; but railroad fares have grown higher since then, teachers 
poorer. Moreover, the railroads proved as unwilling this year as the 
United States Railroad Administration had been in the year preced- 
ing to make any concessions as to reduction of railroad fares for such 


1 Thisaccount of the Washington meeting is taken, with some modifications and abridgments, from the 
American Historical Review for April, 1921. 


97244°—25——-3 33 


84 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


an occasion. They could not be persuaded to class the American 
Historical Association’s meeting among “meetings of religious, edu- 
cational, charitable, fraternal, or military character.’”’ Most members, 
it is hoped, found the meeting both educational and fraternal; at all 
events, members came in unexpected numbers. The registration 
amounted to 360. The other societies meeting at the same time—the 
American Political Science Association, the American Sociological 
Society, the American Catholic Historical Association, the Mississippi 
Valley Historical Association, and the Agricultural History Society — 
also had gratifying numbers registering. The subscription dinner, 
in which all the societies joined, had an attendance of 300, and the 
breakfast conferences and luncheon conferences for informal discus- 
sion of themes or projects asssumed to have a special interest for 
merely a limited number of members had on this occasion so embar- 
rassing a number of attendants that at meetings hereafter held it will 
seem difficult to combine the feeding of the multitude with preach- 
ing of the word. 

The subscription dinner deserves a special comment. Such func- 
tions are expensive, and the association had seldom ventured to have 
them; but this particular dinner, a joint affair of all the societies, 
amply justified itself. No one who heard the incisive remarks of the 
French Ambassador on historical processes and modern events, or the 
Secretary of War’s penetrating and brilliant discussion of the rela- 
tion of history to the Great War, or Dr. J. J. Walsh’s witty speech 
on historical assumptions respecting progress, is likely ever to forget 
the occasion. Doctor Walsh spoke as representative of the American 
Catholic Historical Association, of which he had that day been elected 
president. Others who spoke were Dr. Paul S. Reinsch, president of 
the American Political Science Association, and Dr. Edward A. Ross 
for the American Sociological Society. At the beginning, graceful 
words of welcome on behalf of the municipal government were spoken 
by Miss Mabel Boardman, one of the Commissioners for the District 
of Columbia. 

Other occasions on which there was union of societies were the joint 
session with the Mississippi Valley Historical Association, :presided 
over by the president of that society, Prof. Chauncey S. Boucher, of 
the University of Texas; the joint session with the Agricultural His- 
tory Society, at which its president, Dr. Rodney H. True, of the 
Départment of Agriculture, acted as chairman; and three joint ses- 
sions with the American Political Science Association. The first of 
these three was the occasion when the presidents of the two societies 
delivered their annual addresses, Dr. Herbert Putnam, Librarian of 
Congress, presiding. The thoughtful address of Prof. Edward Chan- 
ning, of Harvard, as president of the American Historical Association, 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 35 


entitled ‘‘An historical retrospect,’’ was printed in the January (1921) 
issue of the Review. The address of Doctor Reinsch was entitled 
“Secret diplomacy: How far ean it be eliminated ?” 

The second of these joint sessions was concerned with Pan Amer- 
ican political and diplomatic relations, and was held, appropriately, 
under the chairmanship of Dr. Leo S. Rowe, the new Director of the 
Pan American Union, and in the Union’s beautiful building (nearly 
all other meetings were held in the New Willard Hotel, the associa- 
tion’s headquarters). In both this session and the luncheon confer- 
ence on the history of Latin America, which preceded it, the same 
tendency was noticeable that has been seen on previous occasions 
when the association has made provision for the consideration of His- 
panic American history, the tendency, namely, to turn away from 
that history to the consideration of present-day problems of the 
mutual relations between the Latin American Republics and the 
United States. The truth is that while interest in these present rela- 
tions is acute and extensive, and while the history of those portions 
of the present United States that were once under Spain is being 
cultivated with exceptional ardor, the historical study of the regions 
to the southward of our boundaries is still in its infancy among us. 

The third of these joint sessions occurred on the last evening, when, 
under the chairmanship of Baron Korff, formerly of the University 
of Helsingfors but now of Washington, papers were read on aspects 
of recent European history and politics. At the close of the session, 
Baron Korff in graceful words expressed thanks on behalf of the 
association to the committees who had been in charge of the meeting 
and to those who, as hosts, had entertained the members. In the His- 
torical Association, the chairman of the committee of local arrange- 
ments was Dr. H. Barrett Learned, the secretary Dr. George F. Zook, 
of the Bureau of Education. The chairman of the committee on the 
program was Prof. Carlton J. H. Hayes, of Columbia University. The 
entertainments included a ‘smoker’ at the Cosmos Club, an evening 
reception by the National Club House Committee of the Association 
of Collegiate Alumnez, and a most pleasant afternoon reception at the 
French Embassy by Ambassador and Madame Jusserand. 

The “luncheon conferences’ were four. One was composed, as has 
already been mentioned, of persons chiefly interested in Latin America; 
another of those interested in the history of the Far East; another 
was devoted, with excellent results, to practical considerations respect- 
ing the study and teaching of economic history. In this conference 
formal papers were read. Prof. Clive Day, of Yale University, who 
presided, spoke on the recognition of economic history as a distinct 
subject, reviewing its history, and discriminating between those ele- 
mentary courses in which its fusion with general history is desirable 


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36 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


and those more advanced stages of instruction to which separate and 
special courses are more appropriate. Prof. Abbott P. Usher, of the 
School of Business Administration in Boston University, spoke on the 
field for the teaching of economic history in colleges and secondary 
schools. It appears that in most colleges and universities where eco- 
nomic history finds a place the chief provision for it consists in a 
course which gives one semester to the economic history of Europe 
and one to that of America. Many difficulties, especially in the intri- 
cate subjects of medieval agriculture and commerce, are avoided by 
beginning the European part of the course with the Industrial Revo- 
lution, but such a procedure sacrifices too much of what is stimulat- 
ing to the student, to whom the contrast between medieval and modern 
conditions, medieval and modern forms of social organization, espe- 
cially in the field of industry,is sure to be highly instructive. Within 
the last few years economic history has become an important subject 
in the curricula of business schools, especially their undergraduate 
divisions, now rapidly growing. Here, little other history can be 
taught; economic history must give elementary training in both his- 
torical and statistical method, and must be coordinated with the work 
descriptive of industries and, in general, of present-day economic or- 
ganization. The speaker doubted the wisdom of trying to extend eco- 
nomic history into the field of secondary and vocational education. 

In the same conference, Professor Hayes, of Columbia University, 
spoke on the relation of courses in economic history to courses in 
history and in economics, respectively; Prof. Frank T. Carlton, of 
De Pauw University, on the history of labor as a field for historical 
research, with especial emphasis on the need for comparative study 
of the structure and operation of different types of labor organiza- 
tions, considered as social forces. 

Much the most numerously attended of these luncheon conferences 
was that which was concerned with the opportunities for historical 
research in Washington. By the courtesy of the Librarian of Con- 
gress, it took place in the Library. The circumstances confined the 
speakers—Dr. Gaillard Hunt, of the Department of State, Mr. Charles 
Moore, chief of the Division of Manuscripts in the Library of Congress, 
Mr. Theodore Belote, curator of American history in the National 
Museum, and Prof. Frederick J. Turner—to the elements of the sub- 
ject, but it was impressive and most gratifying to see the eager 
interest with which their hearers, mostly young graduate students, 
absorbed these elements of knowledge and incitement concerning the 
historical treasures of Washington. Would that some adequate 
appreciation of the opportunities presented here might be diffused 
among the members of the historical profession, and all others who 
are interested in history! How do they escape the knowledge that 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 87 


Washington is far the best place for the study of most of the really 
important parts of American history? Certainly no city in the world 
so richly provided with historical materials is so little resorted to for 
purposes of historical writing. From a country of such enormous 
wealth, there should be, outside the number of those who earn their 
living in Washington by the teaching of history or other historical 
work, and the occasional professors who come on leave of absence, 
at least 50 scholars able to vivere suo who have settled down in 
Washington to lead the historical student’s life and exploit this 
wonderfully opulent mass of material. There are not five. But 
apparently the well-to-do young American, though nowadays he 
goes or is sent to college, seldom acquires from either parents or 
teachers the conviction that there is an inviting career in further 
study. He isnot found in the graduate school. Yet historical writ- 
ing has never been a poor man’s pursuit, but always a pursuit of the 
well-to-do or the endowed—and in America, with no Congregation 
of St. Maur, the endowed class has embraced only professors of his- 
tory, and them only in the happy years from 1880 to 1914, when 
professors still had some free time! 

But to return to the meeting. Before proceeding to those papers 
which can best be taken into consideration individually, one should 
speak of two sessions which had more the character of “ experience 
meetings,” or of free conferences unencumbered by meals, than of 
assemblages for the reading of formal papers—the usual annual 
meeting of the Conference of Historical Societies and the conference 
which met to discuss the report of the committee on history and 
education for citizenship in the schools. The former, presided over 
by Dr. James Sullivan, State historian of New York, was given the 
shape of a joint meeting of the representatives of historical societies 
and of the National Association of State War History Organizations. 
For the latter body, which now embraces some 15 of the organizations 
which States have formed for the collection and preservation of their 
records of service in the Great War, Mr. Karl Singewald, of the his- 
torical division of the Maryland Council of Defense, presented a report 
of “Progress in the collection of war records by State war history 
organizations’’; Prof. Albert E. McKinley, secretary of the Pennsy]l- 
vania War History Commission, a paper of “Suggestions and plans 
for State and local publications of war history.” The materials 
chiefly collected are, first, the service records of individuals; secondly, 
other military records, such as histories of units, diaries, rosters, 
photographs, etc.; thirdly, various materials relating to economic 
participation in the war, and to welfare and morale work. The pro- 
jected publications correspond—histories of military participation, 
histories of economic effort, histories of the welfare movements. 


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88 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


In respect to the work of historical societies, the main subject was 
that of cooperation of societies within the individual State. Dr. 
Joseph Schafer, superintendent of the State Historical Society 
of Wisconsin, described the intensive survey of the settlement of that 
State which is being carried on by the cooperative efforts of that 
society and of the local historical societies, and to which has been 
given the appropriate title of the Wisconsin Domesday Book; Dr. 
Worthington C. Ford and Dr. James Sullivan described, respectively, 
the work of the Bay State Historical League in Massachusetts, and 
of the various county and regional federations of historical societies 
in New York, and dwelt upon the stimulus given to local societies by 
the contacts afforded by these groupings. 

At the close of the session the conference of historical societies, 
which enjoys a certain autonomy under the auspices of the associa- 
tion, held its annual business mecting. Mr. George S. Godard was 
reelected chairman for the present year and two special committees 
were appointed, one to publish, if possible, a handbook of historical 
societies, the other to consider a continuation of the bibliography of 
historical societies compiled to 1905 by Mr. A. P. C. Griffin and 
printed as Volume II of the annual report of the association for that 
year. Dr. Dunbar Rowland made a report as chairman of the com- 
mittee appointed by the conference in 1907, on cooperation among 
American historical societies and State departments of history. The 
project undertaken by the committee, namely, the calendaring of all 
documents in Parisian archives relating to the Mississippi Valley, for 
which the societies and departments of that region had raised a fund 
of $3,000, has been substantially completed, so far as the gathering 
of material for it is concerned. Doctor Rowland recommended that 
the offer of the Department of Historical Research in the Carnegie 
Institution of Washington to edit and publish the calendar be accepted 
and that the special committee be discharged. ‘This recommendation 
was adopted. 

The committee on history and education for citizenship in the 
schools was constituted in 1918, first by the National Board for 
Historical Service and later by the association, in order to consider 
those extensive modifications in the methods of historical teaching 
in schools which, it was then felt, must be brought about as a result 
of the Great War, in order that history might do its full part in 
training the minds of the young for proper service to a new era. 
The history of the committee’s work may be traced in these pages 
and in those of the Historical Outlook, where also preliminary reports 
from it have been printed. Many obstacles have delayed the pre- 
sentation of its final report. The object of the present conference 


2See American Historical Review, X XIV, 351-353, 746; X XV, 372-373; Historical Outlook, X, 273-281, 
349-351, 448-451; XI, 73-83, 111-115. 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 39 


was the discussion of portions of its proposals, already made known 
by some of its previous publications. 

In the first of the two formal addresses presented, both of them 
by members of the committee, Prof. Henry Johnson, of Teachers 
College, Columbia University, discussed the questions of “ Local and 
American history in grades II-VI” and ‘‘ World history in the high 
school.’’ He described three groups of dominant ideas respecting 
the aims and subject matter of history as a theme of instruction—(1) 
that the past should be used, as needed, to elucidate the present, 
without regard to boundaries of subjects, such as geography, litera- 
ture, economics, history, etc.; (2) that there should be systematic 
study of history, but that the selection of subjects or events to be 
studied should be determined solely by present interests; (3) that 
there should be a study of history for its own sake, because it repre- 
sents what the past was and how the present came to be. The work 
of the committee was based on the last conception. Professor 
Johnson then gave concrete illustrations of methods of teaching 
pupils in the grades. The central idea was that of so presenting 
material as to lead pupils to do constructive thinking; to use the 
historical method in implanting the idea of change, in evaluating 
evidence, and in forming conclusions. The speaker approved the 
proposal of a course in world history in the high schools.’ 

The secretary of the committee, Mr. Daniel C. Knowlton, outlined 
the proposed course in modern history for grade X, consisting of a 
preliminary course of one semester in ancient and medieval history 
and a semester in modern history. Main topics and subtopics were 
enumerated, chosen for the purpose of showing the progress toward 
democracy in Europe, for grade X, to be followed by a course in 
American history with a similar purpose, for grade XI, and one in 
problems resulting from the growth of democracy, for grade XII. 
Miss Harriet Tuell, president of the New England History Teachers’ 
Association, criticized the committee’s plan as inadequate, as running 
beyond the capacity of the average high-school pupil, and as laying 
undue emphasis on one phase of European development—the growth 
of democracy. 

In view of the transfer of the chairman of this committee, Pro- 
fessor Schafer, from Oregon to a new occupation in Wisconsin, and 
of other changes of occupation by other members, the committee 
asked to be discharged and to have its work reviewed and concluded 
by a fresh committee. The council acceded to this request and 
appointed a new committee to be called the committee on history 
teaching in schools, of which the chairman is Professor Johnson. 


*Mr. Johnson’s address, together with a preliminary report by Mr. Schafer, will be found in the His- 
torical Outlook for March, 1921, XII, 87-97. 


40 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Another session having a special character was that devoted to the 
history of science. Its chairman, Dr. Robert S. Woodward, the retir- 
ing president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, welcomed 
the attitude of the American Historical Association toward the his- 
tory of science, emphasized the need of breaking down the artificial 
barriers which separate one department of learning or science from 
another, and recalled plans of earlier years for a general history of 
the inductive sciences. Of the three papers read, the first was one 
by Dr. Fielding H. Garrison, librarian of the Surgeon General’s Office, 
on ‘Recent realignments in the histery of medieval medicine and 
science.’ While the most important medical texts of classical antiq- 
uity and the Middle Ages were issued in type by the renaissance 
printers, much of the scientific and medical literature of those times 
remained in manuscript, and it was not till quite recent years that 
either the early printed books or the thousands of medical and other 
scientific manuscripts have been subjected to careful examination. 
The result has been to show that the medieval physicians were weak 
in anatomy and in physiology; that internal medicine was with them 
a matter of tradition, both as to theory and as to practice; but that 
in surgery and in hygiene their accomplishment was considerable. 
Other branches of science developed in the Middle Ages chiefly through 
the pursuit of practical inventions. 

The second of these papers in the history of science was one on 
“Developments in electromagnetism during the last hundred years,”’ 
by Prof. Arthur E. Kennelly, of Harvard.‘ The occasion of this 
survey was the hundredth anniversary of Oersted’s discovery of the 
connection between electricity and magnetism-——of the deflecting of, 
the magnetic needle by an electric current. The development of the 
subject was traced, from Ampére’s epochmaking paper of the same 
year, 1820, through his subsequent researches, through Faraday’s 
discovery of electromagnetic induction, through the applications to 
telegraphy, ocean cables, and the telephone, through Clerk Maxwell’s 
researches into the relations between electricity and light, the subse- 
quent investigation of radioelectric waves, and the study of the 
electron theory of matter. This session concluded with a paper 
by Prof. James H. Robinson, of the New School of Social Research, 
in New York, on “Free thought, yesterday and to-day.” Treating 
his subject with characteristic wit and pungency of statement, from 
the point of view of the student of intellectual history, he compared 
especially the modes of thought of the eighteenth century deists and 
other philosophers with our own, and set forth the gains to modern 
thinking derived from the scientific advance of the last century. 


‘Printed in a modified form in the Boston Transcript of Jan. 26, 1921. 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 4] 


Proceeding now to the main body of substantive papers, or papers 
read as contributions to history, it must be said that on the whole 
they seemed to be of less importance or excellence than the average 
of what has been brought forward on such occasions in the past, yet 
some were of exceptionally high quality. The most convenient plan 
for giving some notion of what the papers not already mentioned con- 


’ tained is perhaps to deal with them in the chronological order of their 


subjects, beginning with ancient history. In the session devoted 
to that field, the first paper was read by Dr. Donald McFayden, 
of the University of Nebraska, on the ‘‘Growth of autocracy in the 
Roman Empire.” Its main features were an argument that the powers 
granted to the princeps in 23 B.C. did not include a legal majus im- 
perium over the senatorial provinces, and, derived from this, a theory 
of the evolution of the princeps’ relation to the administration of 
justice. Contrary to the accepted view, he held that under the 
Augustan Constitution the princeps possessed no jurisdiction except 
over the imperial provinces, that the activities of his judicial court and 
of that held by the praefectus urbi as his deputy were technically uncon- 
stitutional, and that the appellate jurisdiction of the princeps was 
simply an outgrowth of the tendency to refer all difficult problems to 
his arbitrarment—to make him the chief jurisconsult of the empire. 
Hadrian’s action in organizing a council of eminent jurisconsults to 
assist him in rendering his decisions fixed him in that position. The 
oxtra-legal origin of the jurisdiction exercised by the princeps and his 
deputies was held to explain the relatively informal character of their 
procedure, while the alliances between the empire and the profes- 
sional lawyers impregnated the later Roman law with the spirit of 
absolutism. 

Next followed an important paper on the “Origin of the Russian 
state on the Dnieper,” by Prof. Mikhail Rostovtsev, formerly of the 
Petrograd Academy of Sciences, now of the University of Wisconsin. 
In the ninth century, when the Russian annals begin to give a system- 
atic record, we find Russia to have already a civilization of its 
own and a well-defined political, social, and economic structure, 
having for its basis a group of commercial city-states, defended and 
in part ruled by alien princes invited from without, one of whom, in 
that century, succeeded in uniting the whole group of cities under 
one dynasty and into one State, with its capital at Kiev. The 
problem of the paper was to account for this form of organization, so 
strikingly different from the agricultural and feudal form prevalent 
at that epoch in western Europe. It was to be solved only by tak- 
ing into consideration that earlier history of south Russia of which 
a portion was treated by Professor Rostovtsev in an article printed 
in our last number.’ The civilization depicted in that article as 


5 Pp. 203-224, above. 


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42 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


prevailing under the joint influence of the Greek colonial cities and 
the Iranian-Scythian empire was not destroyed when the Sarmatian 
power-replaced the Scythian, nor when Celtic and after them Ger- 
manic invaders came. They took over, as it was their interest to 
do, the commercial relations which they found; and when the Ger- 
mans passed on into the Roman Empire and the west, the Slavs, in 
the main, simply took their place, founded a State of the same type, 
took over their towns, their trade relations, and their civilization— 
not a Germanic, nor thereafter a Slavonic, civilization, but the 
ancient Graeco-Jranian civilization of the Scythians and Sarmatians, 
with slight modifications. The Slavonic is but one of the epochs in 
the evolution of Russia, but with this difference, that the Slavs made 
Russia their final aim and home. 

A paper on ‘‘The problem of control in medieval industry,’’* by Dr. 
Austin P. Evans, of Columbia University, addressed itself to ques- 
tions made timely by the recent tendency to extol medieval economic 
organization as worthy of imitation in our time. The author showed 
how medieval theories respecting property and value left the Govern- 
ment, of State or city, free to control the production and sale of goods. 
As to the warmly debated question, whether guilds freely controlled 
industry, whether guilds were everywhere under the control of civil 
authorities of State or town, or whether guilds had a larger measure 
of autonomy while the civil authorities maintained residuary power, 
Mr. Evans held that most commonly the guilds were under the ulte- 
rior control of the State, but he deprecated sweeping generalizations 
in a field marked by so much variety, and also all tendency to idealize 
the economic organization prevalent in the Middle Ages. 

The only other paper in medieval history was one by Prof. Louis 
J. Paetow, of the University of California, on ‘‘ Latin as an interna- 
tional language in the Middle Ages.’’ Modern civilization, he pointed 
out, rests on the achievements of Latin Christendom in that period, 
yet, though the Latin language was the chief engine of civilization 
throughout those ages, so little effort has been applied to the scholarly 
study of medieval Latin that Du Cange’s Glossarium, published in 1678 
and augmented largely in the eighteenth century, is still referred to 
as its standard dictionary. Made international by the Western 
Church, that speech remained the common medium of communication 
and literature throughout western Europe, its chief bond of union, 
until the Italian humanists, while enthusiastically awakening classical 
Latin to new life, fatally checked the development of the current Latin 
as a living and international language. Recent efforts to restore 
Latin to that position were described. 


¢ Printed in the Political Science Quarterly, Vol. XXXVI, No. 4, December, 1921, 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 43 


The paper of Prof. George M. Dutcher, of Wesleyan University, 
on “ The enlightened despotism,” opened with a brief analysis in which 
the enlightened despotism was characterized as based upon the au- 
thority of reason and notupon humanitarianism. Next the origin of 
the movement in Prussia, rather than in the more progressive nations, 
England and France, was explained. Conditions in the German lands 
at the close of the Thirty Years’ War were sketched with special ref- 
erence to the situation of the Hohenzollern possessions, and the con- 
structive policy and work of the Great Elector were outlined as the 
earliest manifestation of the enlightened despotism, whose foremost 
exponent was that prince’s great-grandson, Frederick the Great. 
Special emphasis was laid upon Frederick’s achievement in internal 
administration during the 10 years’ truce beginning in 1745, and its 
imitation by Maria Theresa, in the rival campaigns of preparedness 
preceding the Seven Years’ War. The priority of these reforming 
activities in administration to the appearance of the famous writings 
on government by the French philosophical thinkers was brought out 
as evidence that the enlightened despotism developed as a practical 
achievement, not as a response to the stimulus of political theorists. 
In short, it was an effort at administrative efficiency designed for the 
agegrandizement of the State, which was conceived of as an entity 
above rulers as well as above subjects and as founded on the au- 
thority of reason rather than on divine right. 

Later periods of European history were traversed in a summary 
survey of ‘‘The break-up of the Hapsburg Empire,” by Prof. Archi- 
bald C. Coolidge, of Harvard University, and in a paper on “Sinn 
Fein,’ by, Prof. Edward R. Turner, of the University of Michigan. 
Dr. Ralph H. Lutz, of Stanford University, narrated the history of 
“The Spartacist uprising in Germany,” of which he had been an eye- 
witness in Berlin. Miss Ruth Putnam, in a paper entitled “The 
aspirations of one small State,” described the evolution of the grand- 
duchy of Luxemburg from the time when it first obtained the oppor- 
tunity of self-determination, after the armistice of November, 1918, 
to recent days. This paper, teo, was based in large part on the data 
of an eyewitness. Problems of labor, finance, railroads, and economic 
affiliation with the neighoring countries were described, and some 
account given of the course and achievements of parties under a new 
constitution providing for woman suffrage and proportional represen- 
tation. 

In a paper on “The establishment of a new Poland,” Col. Lucius 
H. Holt, of the United States Military Academy, traced the establish- 
ment of a new government, and political events in Poland from the 
outbreak of the war in 1914 to the present date. The paper empha- 
sized the work of the supreme national committee during the years 


44 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


from 1914 to 1916. It traced briefly the influences which led the 
Central Powers to recognize Poland in the autumn of 1915, and 
the subsequent incidents which revealed the duplicity of Germany 
and turned the Poles against that country. It summarized the points 
in the allied recognition of Poland in 1918. It outlined the clash of 
conflicting political forces in Poland during the armistice period and 
the result, spoke of the elections of January, 1919, and closed with a 
statement of the progress made by the Polish Assembly upon the 
draft of a constitution. ~ 

The last of the papers which we may describe as bearing on the 
history of the Old World was that of Dr. Stephen P. Duggan, director 
of the Institute of International Education, on “Syria, Palestine, and 
Mandates.”’ When the Great War broke out the Allies found 
strong support among the Syrian patriots and leaders who, under 
the rule of the Young Turks, or exiled by them, had been contending 
for an autonomous or independent Syria administered by Arabs 
with Arabic as official language. Unfortunately, the agreement of 
October 25, 1915, made between the Sherif of the Hejaz and the 
British High Commission at Cairo, conflicted with the provisions of 
the Sykes-Picot treaty between France and Great Britain as to the 
disposition of the Arab lands of the Ottoman Empire. Moreover, 
that treaty was considered by the Arabs to be superseded by the 
Anglo-French declaration of November 8, 1918. When, therefore, 
after the occupation of the territory by General Allenby, mandates 
were given by the Supreme Council to Great Britain for Pales- 
tine and to France for Syria, the Arab nationalists considered that 
they had been deceived, opposed the erection of a Zionist common- 
wealth in Palestine, and entered on a course of conflict with the 
British in Palestine and of warfare with the French elsewhere in 
Syria. 

At the end of this last session, Dr. Victor Andrés Belaunde, of the 
University of San Marcos of Lima, Peru, read a brief paper on “The 
communistic system of the Incas,’ and the comparison between its 
features and those of Russian communism under Lenin and Trotzky. 

Passing now to the papers in American history, it is to be noted 
that, appropriately to the date, one session was devoted to commemo- 
rating the tercentenary of the arrival of the Pilgrim Fathers. In this 
session three papers were read, of which the first by Prof. Clive Day, 
of Yale University, dealt with ‘‘Capitalistic and socialistic tendencies 
in the Puritan colonies.”’ Its special object was to consider a view 
recently advanced by the late Prof. Max Weber, of Heidelberg, that 
in the development of the modern capitalist and of a capitalistic so- 
ciety, as set forth in Sombart’s familiar analysis, an essential source 


6Printed in the Journal of International Relations, April, 1921, under the title, ‘“‘The Syrian Question.” 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 45 


of the capitalist spirit is to be found in the religious beliefs and ethical 
principles of the Puritans. Confining himself to the Puritans of New 
England, the speaker set forth the results of a careful examination 
of their sermons and laws as expressions of their ethical ideals. He 
did not find that encouragements to industry and thrift bulked 
large in their sermons and coneluded that whatever urgency was 


‘manifest toward the accumulation of capital, greatly needed in the 


colonies, was social rather than individual and capitalistic in its 
motives. 

Mr. Lincoln N. Kinnicutt, of Worcester, followed with a paper 
entitled, “The settlement of Plymouth contemplated before 1620.” 
Its thesis was that Sir Ferdinando Gorges desired a settlement at 
Plymouth Harbor and did what he could to guide the Pilgrims 
thither, supplying them with information and endeavoring to arrange 
that Captain Dermer and Tisquantum should be at hand to point 
their way, possibly also making private arrangements with Captain 
Jones of the Mayflower. 

Thirdly, Prof. David S. Muzzey, of Columbia University, in a 
paper on ‘‘ The heritage of the Puritans,’ after acknowledging the de- 
fects characteristic of Puritanism but urging that all estimates of these 
should be based on comparisons with contemporaneous phenomena 
rather than with those of the present time, set forth in admirable 
style three principal portions of our inheritance from the Puritans 
and Pilgrims—the results of their political philosophy, with its insist- 
ence on covenant as the basis of civil relations; the influence of the 
New England town, primordial cell of local self-government; and 
the emphasis which the Puritans permanently placed upon unremit- 
ting education for responsibility. 

The paper on “The slave trade into South Carolina before the 
Revolution,” by Miss Elizabeth Donnan, of Wellesley College, a prod- 
uct of researches conducted on behalf of the Carnegie Institution of 
Washington, derived its information for the first third of the eighteenth 
century from offical papers, dealing with those aspects of the trade in 
which British officials and British merchants concerned themselves, 
such as the import taxes imposed by the colony, payment of debts to 
British merchants, and monopoly by the Royal Co. From 1732 we 
have the files of the South Carolina Gazette and from 1748 the business 
letters of Henry Laurens. From these two sources much can be learned 
concerning the actual process of buying and selling the black cargoes, 
which were handled by importing merchants, prominent in Charleston 
society, who were giving to their British principals copious informa- 
tion concerning weather, crops, prices, and other factors which influ- 
enced the market. The paper described in detail such matters as the 
terms of contract between principal and factor and between factor 


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46 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


and purchasing planter, the methods of the auction sales, the range 
of territory covered, and the risks and difficulties which the factor 
encountered. 

The paper which was read by Prof. Fiske Kimball, of the Univer- 
sity of Virginia, on ‘‘ Architecture in the history of the Colonies and 
of the Republic,” in which he traversed several current notions as to 
the influence of pioneer conditions on American colonial building, and 
emphasized the American elements in the development of classical 
architecture in the early years of the Republic, appears in the October 
(1921) issue of the Review. : 

The paper entitled “John Wesley, Tory,” by Prof. William W. 
Sweet, of De Pauw University, treated of the activities and influence 
of Wesley during the American Revolution. Inthe 10 years begin- 
ning with 1768 Wesley published 10 political pamphlets. The first 3 
were caused by the excitement concerning the case of John Wilkes, 
and took the side of King and Government; the fourth was devoted 
to the slave trade, of which Wesley was one of the earliest opponents. 
The remaining 6 have to do with the American Revolution, the first 
and most important of them being ‘‘ A calm address to our American 
Colonies” (1775). In all of them Wesley invariably supports the 
King and Government. The reasons for his course are complex—he 
was born and bred a High-Churchman and a Tory; he believed in the 
divine right of kings, for that theory seemed to him the most religious; 
he was a firm supporter of law and order; he hated rebellion; the King 
had been kindly disposed toward the Methodists; the King’s private 
life and his court were free from scandal; Lord Dartmouth was a 
leader in the Evangelical movement. Wesley’s position on the 
American war led to some suspicion and even persecution of Ameri- 
can Methodists as Tories, but at the close of the war he was wise 
enough to recognize the result as providential and set about to organ- 
ize the American Methodists into an independent church. 

In the paper by Prof. Homer C. Hockett, of the Ohio State Univer- 
sity, on “The American background of federalism,’’ the endeavor was 
to show the part played by American influences in the development 
of the two chief modern federations, the American Union and the 
British Empire. He held that the immediate background of our own 
federalism lay rather in the relations of the Colonies to one another 
than in the previous practices of the British Empire; that while the 
modern British imperial organization, as a league of autonomous com- 
monwealths, was foreshadowed by the American position in the con- 
troversy preceding the Revolution, British policy was not changed by 
the American contention; but that the essential change in that policy 
resulted rather from the undermining of mercantilism, and thus of the 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 47 


old colonial system, by Adam Smith’s political economy, and from 
the aggressive demands of the Canadians for responsible government. 

Of the papers on American history in the early part of the nine- 
teenth century, that of Prof. Louis M. Sears, of Purdue University, 
on ‘‘Philadelphia and the embargo of 1808,’’* adverted first to the 
ambiguous position of that city in respect to economic status at that 
time. As a commercial city, Philadelphia was subject to the distress 
entailed by the embargo upon all sections of the commercial popu- 
lation. But Philadelphia, in common with Baltimore and other ports 
of the Middle States, possessed an incitement to manufactures in her 
proximity to the-new trans-Alleghany settlements. She seized her 
opportunity, actually developed a considerable manufacturing indus- 
try, and won prosperity for a greater number of her citizens than the 
embargo had impoverished. The material expression of this prosper- 
ity was a building boom involving the construction of over a thousand 
houses. The political expression Was a continued confidence in the 
Democratic party and in the wisdom and goodness of Thomas Jeffer- 
son, Philadelphia being, according to one’s point of view, either the 
shining exception to the folly of the Jeffersonian system, or else the 
shining example of its wisdom. 

In the joint session held with the Agricultural History Society, 
Prof. Percy W. Bidwell, of Yale University, read a paper, which we 
shall later have the privilege of presenting in full to our readers, on 
“The agricultural revolution in New England, 1815-1860,” showing 
how the development of New England manufactures and the creation 
of factory villages began a transition from farming for a living to 
farming for profit, how the building of railroads, just as this transition 
to commercial agriculture was well under way, subjected the New Eng- 
land farmer to disastrous competition from the westward, and how he 
carried out the readjustment of his economic system which was thus 
forced upon him. 

In the same joint session, Mr. Herbert A. Kellar, of the McCormick 
Library, Chicago, read a paper on ‘“‘ The influence of the agricultural 
fair upon American society, 1830-1851,” and Mr. Rudolf A. Clemen, of 
Northwestern University, one on “ The economic bases of the 
American system of large-scale meat packing.”’ Sketching the earlier 
history of the American trade in livestock and meat and that of the 
period when Cincinnati was the center and pork the staple, Mr. Clemen 
devoted his attention chiefly to the period since the establishment of 
the Chicago stockyards in 1865, and to the economic results of the 
four chief factors, all introduced about 1870-1875, which gave the 
meat industry the form it has since borne—the system of ranges and 
ranches in the far West, the extention of routes of transportation to 


‘An outline of this paper appears in the Quarterly Journal of Economics for February, 1921, pp. 
354-359. 


48 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


the sources of supply, the development of refrigeration and of the 
refrigerator car, and the rise of the great organizers of distribution. 

There was but one paper relating to the period of the Civil War, 
that of Prof. Charles W. Ramsdell, of the-University of Texas, on 
‘‘The control of manufacturing by the Confederate government.”’ He 
showed that while the strong individualism of the South prevented 
the Confederacy from regulating manufactures as a feature of its civil 
policy, a rigorous control was established over the production of cloth 
and leather through military agencies, particularly the quartermaster’s 
bureau. By means of the conscription and impressment laws, the 
supplies of labor, wool, hides, and railway transportation came under 
the control of the War Department, which was able to force the fac- 
tories and tanneries to contract almost exclusively with the govern- 
ment when they preferred the higher profits of the public market. 
The State government of North Carolina, however, interposed suc- 
cessfully to prevent Confederate control of manufactures in that State 
and to preserve their products for the exclusive use of North Carolina 
troops. 

Only two papers bore on the history of the United States between 
1865 and 1900, none on our history in the twentieth century. Both 
of these two bore on aspects of that period which derive their signifi- 
cance from the economic problems which emerged with the growth 
of capitalism after the Civil War and which are still unsolved. The 
first was a paper by Prof. John D. Hicks, of Hamline University, 
Minnesota, on “‘ The political career of Ignatius Donnelly,” who figured 
in the politics of Minnesota and of the Nation, throughout the period 
named, as the champion, ardent but unpractical, of every movement 
that gave promise of bettering the lot of the ordinary man and securing 
his rights against the claims of property. Indifferent to party—by 
turns Anti-Monopolist, Greenbacker, Democrat, Republican, Farmers’ 
Alliance man, Populist, Middle-of-the-Roader—he sought his cher- 
ished reforms most commonly through third-party movements. 
His final rejection of opportunist tactics was exhibited when the 
main body of Populists adopted the policy of fusion with the Demo- . 
cratic Party in 1896. 

In a paper on ‘‘Agrarian discontent in the South during the eighties 
and nineties of the last century,” Prof. B. B. Kendrick, of Columbia 
University, dwelt on only two of the causes of that discontent. The 
primary cause, social, lay in the fact that the southern farmer occu- 
pied in 1890, in the economical, the political, and especially the social 
life of the country, a position much lower than he had in 1860. The 
principal economic cause of his unrest lay in the lien-law system—an 
evil peculiar to the southern farmer—under which the farmer was 
almost a serf to the city merchant to whom he happened to be indebted. 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 49 


Other elements in the southern situation were not peculiar to that 
section, but were such as, in the case of the West, have been adequately 
treated in the books of Buck, Haines, Garland, White, and others; 
but the history of the southern farmer in that period still awaits 
systematic investigation. 

Papers on “ Pan American political and diplomatic relations’’—the 
general theme of one of the sessions held jointly by the Historical 
and the Political Science Associations, fall last to be described. That 
of Prof. Herman G. James, of the University of Texas, on ‘‘ Recent 
constitutional changes in Latin America,” is printed in full elsewhere.* 
That of Prof. Julius Klein, of Harvard, entitled “The Monroe doctrine 
as a regional understanding,’ was,so far as historical content is 
concerned, devoted to an interesting exposition of the ways and 
extent in which the period of the Great War has brought to the 
South American Republics appreciation of their own capacity for self- 
development, promoted international cooperation within South 
America in economic and social matters, enhanced the application of 
South American capital to industrial and commercial enterprises, and 
furthered economic independence of Europe while multiplying con- 
tacts with North America. The probable bearing of al! this on the 
development of the Monroe doctrine was described.’ 

Prof. Manoel de Oliveira Lima, the eminent Brazilian scholar who 
has lately become a member of the Catholic University of America, 
concluded this series with a paper on ‘‘Pan Americanism and the 
League of Nations,’’ in which, after reviewing some earlier attempts 
at forming leagues which had originated in South America, he advo- 
cated, as the most desirable feature of any league of nations, a su- 
preme court to deal with differences, interpretations, and controversies, 
and dwelt on the ‘Pan American conscience,” the consciousness of 
the need of union in the New World, and its common respect for pub- 
lic law, as secure foundations for any closer relations between its 
members. 

It remains to narrate the transactions of the annual business 
meeting. The delay in the printing of our January number made it 
possible to insert in that number, on pages 411 and 412, some account 
of these transactions, but a fuller narrative is, according to custom, 
expected in this place, and may be given in spite of some repetition 
necessarily involved. 

The secretary’s report showed a membership of 2,524, a gain of 79 
since the preceding year; the gain is to be attributed to the activity 
of the committee on membership. The treasurer’s report showed 


** Constitutional tendencies in Latin America,’’ Current History, February, 1921. 
This paper and that of Dr. Oliveira Lima, next mentioned, appeared in the May, 1921, number of the 
Hispanic-American Historical Review. 


97244°—25——_-4 


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50 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


receipts of $10,483, expenditures of $9,786; but the cost of printing the 
American Historical Review has increased to so extraordinary a 
degree, especial!y in the latter months of the year, that drastic measures 
will be necessary in order to avoid a deficit for the year 1921. These 
costs of manufaeture have been steadily rising since the year before 
the Great War. The publishers’ estimates seem to show that in 1921 
they will surpass those of the year last mentioned by more than 80 
per cent. Instead of paying to the Macmillan Co. 50 cents per copy 
for copies supplied to members of the association as required by the 
present contract, it becomes necessary to pay hereafter 70 cents, or 
per annum $2.80, nearly the total sum paid to the association by each 
member as his annual dues. Therefore the association voted to sub- 
mit to the next annual meeting an amendment to the constitution 
increasing the annual dues from $3 to $5 (and the life-membership 
fee from $50 to $100), and in the meantime to authorize the treasurer, 
when sending out the bills in September, to invite voluntary contri- 
butions of from $2 to $5 additional to the dues. The text of the 
proposed amendment to the constitution is given in the appendix to 
this article. Provision was also made for a committee on increase 
of the endowment, which now stands at $31,639. 

The special committee on policy, appointed three years ago, sub- 
mitted an elaborate report. Many of its recommendations require 
additional funds for their execution. Such as could be carried into 
effect under existing conditions were adopted. Thus, in order to 
secure permanence and continuity of policy of the committee on 
program, it was voted that three members of that committee should 
serve for terms of three years so arranged that one member should 
retire each year, while the other members were to serve for terms of 
one year and be selected with reference to locality. Other recom- 
mendations of the committee on policy, adopted by the Association, 
provided for continuance or revival of the public archives commission, 
the committee on bibliography, and the committee on the documen- 
tary historical publications of the United States Government; for the 
discharge, at its own request, as mentioned on a previous page of the 
present committee on history and education for citizenship in the 
schools and the substitution of a new committee on history teaching 
in schools; and for the establishment ‘of a standing committee on 
military history, whose chief function should be to cooperate with the 
Historical Branch of the General Staff of the United States Army, 
and other governmental agencies, national and State, engaged in 
preparing historical works relative to the recent war. As a means of 
carrying out the desires which have at times been expressed for a 
special journal of European history, or an organ for the publication 
of brief monographs in that field, the committee on policy recom- 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 51 


mended the establishment, when means are at hand, ofa series of 
historical studies; the details were referred to a committee. 

The budget proposed by the council is printed on a later page, in 
connection with an outline of the treasurer’s report. 

Under the terms of the will of the late George Louis Beer a prize 
was established, to be known as the George Louis Beer prize, for the 
‘best work upon any phase of European international history since 
the year 1895’’; a committee was appointed to shape rules for its 
award. The prize offered in military history, to which the council 
had appropriately given the name of the Robert M. Johnston prize, was 
awarded to Mr. Thomas R. Hay, for an essay on Hood’s Tennessee 
campaign. It was announced that the committee on the Justin Winsor 
prize had been unable to agree, and the three essays most regarded 
were referred to a new committee on that prize appointed for the bien- 
nium 1921-22. 

A special committee was appointed by the council at the instance 
of the secretary, to consider the general subject of historical writing 
(as distinguished from historical research) in the United States and 
to report as to what means, if any, may be adopted to stimulate the 
better writing of history. The committee appointed consists of Mr. 
Jusserand, Dr. Charles W. Colby, and Prof. W. C. Abbott; its report 
on this exceedingly important subject will be awaited with much 
interest. 

A committee of which Prof. George M. Dutcher is chairman had 
been appointed at the preceding annual meeting to prepare a man- 
ual of historical literature to replace the well-known work by the late 
Dr. Charles K. Adams. One of the breakfast conferences held during 
the sessions was organized in order that those who are to take part 
in the preparation of this manual might hear a report of progress and 
discuss various questions of policy. The committee’s plan involves 
some further chapters additional to those in Doctor Adams’s book, 
the inclusion of at least half as many more titles, but with somewhat . 
briefer reviews, in order to keep the size of the volume not much 
larger, and-the assignment of each of the proposed 29 chapters to an 
expert in its field, as chapter editor, with assistance from other 
specialists. It is anticipated that the new work, which was originally 
suggested by the American Library Association, will find its largest 
usefulness in public libraries and high schools, but that it will not be 
without value for teachers and students in colleges and universities. 
Most of the titles will be of works which have appeared since the 
publication of Doctor Adams’s book, and there will be a somewhat 
larger proportion of books in English treated. 

It was voted, on a hospitable invitation from St. Louis, that the 
next annual meeting should be held in that city. The dates will 
probably be December 28, 29, and 30. 


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592 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


The annual elections followed precisely the list presented by the 
committee on nominations. His excellency the French ambassador, 
Mr. Jusserand, was chosen president for the ensuing year, Prof. 
Charles H. Haskins first vice president, Prof. Edward P. Cheyney 
second vice president. Prof. John S. Bassett and Mr. Charles Moore 
were reelected secretary and treasurer, respectively. The election to 
the executive council also followed precisely the committee’s list, 
except that Professor Becker withdrew his name, preferring to con- 
tinue as a member of the board of editors of the Review, whereupon 
the committee substituted the name of Professor Sioussat. The 
councilors elected were: Miss Ruth Putnam, Profs. Arthur L. Cross, 
Sidney B. Fay, Carl R. Fish, Carlton J. H. Hayes, Frederic L. Paxson, 
James T. Shotwell, and St. George L. Sioussat. The council elected 
Prof. Guy S. Ford a member of the board of editors of the Review 
in the place of Prof. J. H. Robinson, whose term had expired, and 
Prof. Archibald C. Coolidge in the place of Professor Cheyney, who 
resigned after being elected a vice president. For the committee on 
nominations, to be presented next autumn, the association chose 
Profs. Henry E. Bourne, William E. Dodd, Eloise Ellery, Frank H. 
Hodder, and William E. Lingelbach; the committee has since chosen 
Professor Hodder as chairman. A full list of the committee assign- 
ments for 1921 follows this article. 

In view of the small number of the ballots which had been received 
in the autumnal “ primary,” and by which the committee on nomi- 
nations had been guided, the outgoing chairman of that committee, 
Mr. Victor H. Paltsits, proposed for consideration next year an 
amendment of by-law No. II which would abolish the provision for 
this formal balloting and would leave it to the committee to nomi- 
nate, with only such indications from other members as letters re- 
ceived from them, or their conversations, might supply. Meantime 
it was voted that the preliminary ballot should be omitted in 1921. 
- It may, however, properly be pointed out that it would be possible 
to maintain the present machinery of balloting and nominating’ 
committee, yet to instruct the committee, or leave it to understand, 
that, while deriving whatever instruction it can from the results of 
the ballot, it is not bound to follow rigidly, without discretion, its 


numerical results, 


= 


PROGRAM OF THE THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING HELD IN 
WASHINGTON, D. C., DECEMBER 27-30, 1920 


Monday, December 27 


9.30 a.m.: MEETING OF THE ExEcuTIvE Councit. 1140 Woodward Building, Fif- 
teenth and H Streets. 

8.15 p.m.: MEETING OF THE AMERICAN SocroLocicat Society. Washington 
Hotel. Chairman, Edward A. Ross, University of Wisconsin. ‘‘ Eudemics; a 
science of national welfare,’’ James Q. Dealey, Brown University, president of 
the American Sociological Society. ‘‘A theory of social interest,’’ Roscoe Pound, 
Harvard University. 


Tuesday, December 28 


10 a.m.: MopERN European History. Large ball room, northend. Chairman, 
William E. Lingelbach, University of Pennsylvania. ‘‘ The enlightened despotism,’’ 
George M. Dutcher, Wesleyan University. ‘Sinn Fein,’’ Edward R. Turner, Uni- 
versity of Michigan. ‘‘The aspirations of one small nation,’’ Ruth Putnam, 
Washington, D.C. ‘‘The establishment of a new Poland,’ Col. Lucius H. Holt, 
United States Military Academy. 

10 a.m.: ANCIENT AND MepiEvat History. Large ballroom, south end. Chair- 
man, George L. Burr, Cornell University. ‘The growth of autocracy in the Roman 
Empire,” Donald MacFayden, University of Nebraska. ‘The origin of the Russian 
state on the Dnieper,’’ M. I. Rostovtzeff, University of Wisconsin. ‘‘The problem 
of control in medieval industry,’’ Austin P. Evans, Columbia University. ‘‘Latin 
as an international language in the Middle Ages,’’ Louis J. Paetow, University of 
California. 

10a. m.: Jomnt MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE OF HisToricaL SOCIETIES AND THE 
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE War History ORGANIZATIONS. Room 1003. 
Chairman, James Sullivan, historian of the State of New York. ‘‘Progress in the 
collection of war records by State war history organizations,’’ Karl Singewald, his- 
torical division, Maryland Council of Defense. ‘‘Suggestions and plans for State 
and local publications of war history,’’ Albert E. McKinley, University of Pennsyl- 
vania. ‘‘Codérdination of historical societies within the State,’’ Joseph Schafer, 
State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Discussion: Worthington C. Ford, Massachu- 
setts Historical Society; Harlow Lindley, Earlham College; Edmond S. Meany, 
University of Washington. 

12.30 p. m.: Luncheon conference: Opportunities for historical research in Wash- 
ington. Library of Congress. Chairman, J. Franklin Jameson, director of the De- 
partment of Historical Research, Carnegie Institution of Washington. Discussion: 
Gaillard Hunt, Department of State; Charles Moore, Library of Congress; Theodore 
Belote, curator of American history in the National Museum; William A. Dunning, 
Columbia University; Frederick J. Turner, Harvard University; W. F. Willoughby, 
Institute for Government Research. 

53 


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54 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


3.30 p. m.: Business meeting of the National Association of State War History 
Organizations. Room 1003. 

4p. m. GENERAL SESSION COMMEMORATING THE PILGRIM TERCENTENARY. Large 
ball room. Chairman, Edward Channing, Harvard University. ‘Economic pre- 
cept and practice of the Puritans,’’ Clive Day, Yale University. ‘‘The Settlement 
at Plymouth contemplated before 1620,’’ Lincoln N. Kinnicutt, Massachusetts 
Historical Society. ‘‘The heritage of the Puritans,”” David Saville Muzzey, 
Columbia University. 

6.15 p.m.: DINNER OF THE MississrPPI VALLEY HisToRICAL ASSOCIA- 
TION. New Ebbitt Hotel. Open to members of the other associations and to others 
interested in American history. Chairman, Chauncey S. Boucher. Address by 
Frederick J. Turner, Harvard University. 

8.15 p.m.: PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESSES. Large ball room. Joint session with the 
American Political Science Association. Chairman, William A. Dunning, Columbia 
University. ‘An historical retrospect,’’ Edward Channing, president of the Ameri- 
can Historical Association. ‘‘Secret diplomacy: How far can it be eliminated?’”’ 
Paul 8. Reinsch, president of the American Political Science Association. 

9.30 p. m.: Smoker for members of all the associations. Cosmos Club. 

9.30 p. m.: Reception by the National Club House Committee of the Collegiate 
Alumnz Association to all‘ the members of the associations, at the National Club 
House, 1607 H Street. 


Wednesday, December 29 


8.15 a. m.: Breakfast conference: The proposed manual of historical literature. 
New Ebbitt Hotel. Gold room. Chairman, George M. Dutcher, Wesleyan Uni- 
versity. 

10a. m.: CONFERENCE ON THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON History AND Epv- 
CATION FOR CITIZENSHIP IN THE ScHoots. Large ball room. Chairman, Joseph 
Schafer, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. ‘Local and American history in 
grades II-VI; world history in the high school, ’’ Henry Johnson, Teachers’ College, 
Columbia University. ‘‘ Modern European history in grade X,’’ Daniel C. Knowlton, 
secretary of the committee. Discussion: Harriet Tuell, president of the New Eng- 
land History Teachers’ Association. ‘‘Topical study of American history for the 
national period in grade XI,’’ Joseph Schafer. Discussion: Albert E. McKinley, 
University of Pennsylvania. ‘‘ Civics in schools, with special reference to grades IX 
and XII,’ Arthur W. Dunn, director of Junior Red Cross. 

10a. m.: AMERICAN History. Joint session with the Mississippi Valley Historical 
Association. Large ballroom. Chairman, Chauncey S. Boucher, University of Texas, 
president of the Mississippi Valley Historical Association. ‘‘The American back- 
ground of Federalism,’’ Homer C. Hockett, Ohio State University. ‘‘The political 
career of Ignatius Donnelly,’’ John D. Hicks, Hamline University. ‘John Wesley, 
Tory,” William W. Sweet, De Pauw University. ‘Manufacturing activities of the 
Confederate Government,’’ Charles W. Ramsdell, University of Texas. 

10 a. m.: AGRIcULTURAL History. Joint session with the Agricultural History 
Society. Room 1003. Chairman, Rodney H. True, president of the Agricultural 
History Society. ‘‘The agricultural revolution in New England, 1810-1860,” Percy 
W. Bidwell, Yale University. ‘‘The influence of the agricultural fair upon Ameri- 
can society, 1830-1851,’’ Herbert A. Kellar, McCormick Library, Chicago. ‘The 
internal grain trade of the United States, 1860-1890,’’ Louis B. Schmidt, Iowa State 


College. 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 55 


12.30 p. m.: Luncheon conference on economic history. New Ebbitt Hotel. Gold 
room. Chairman, Clive Day, Yale University. ‘‘The recognition of economic his- 
tory as a distinct subject,’’ the chairman. ‘‘The field for courses in economic his- 
tory,’’ Abbott Payson Usher, Cornell University. ‘‘The relation of courses in economic 
history to courses in history and economics,’ Carlton J. H. Hayes, Columbia Uni- 
versity. ‘‘ Fields of research in economic history—Agriculture, ’’ Louis B. Schmidt, 
Iowa State College; ‘‘ Labor, ’’ Frank T. Carlton, De Pauw University. 

3 p. m.: ANNUAL Business Meetina. Small ball room, tenth floor. Reports 
of officers and committees, election of officers, announcement of committee appoint- 
ments, miscellaneous business. 

7 p.m.: SuBscriPTion DinNER. Large ball room. For members ofall the associa- 
tions and their friends. Chairman, J. Franklin Jameson, director of the Depart- 
ment of Historical Research of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Speakers, 
the French Ambassador; the Secretary of War: Miss Mabel Boardman, Commissioner 
of the District of Columbia; Hon. Paul 8S. Reinsch, late minister to China; President 
Frank J. Goodnow of Johns Hopkins University; Dr. James J. Walsh of Cathedral 
College, New York; and Prof. Edward A. Ross of the University of Wisconsin. 


Thursday, December 30 


10a.m.: AMERICAN History. Large ball room, south end. Chairman Marshall 
S. Brown, New York University. ‘‘Theslave trade into South Carolina,’’ Elizabeth 
Donnan, Wellesley College. ‘‘ Architecture in the history of the Colonies and of the 
Republic,’’ Fiske Kimball, University of Virginia. ‘‘ Philadelphia and the embargo 
of 1808,” Louis M. Sears, Purdue University. ‘‘Agrarian discontent in the South 
in the eighties and nineties,’’ Benjamin B. Kendrick, Columbia University. 

10 a.m: History oF Science. Large ball room, northend. Chairman, Robert S. 
Woodward, president of the Carnegie Institute of Washington. ‘Recent realignments 
in the medieval medicine and science,’’ Dr. Fielding H. Garrison, librarian, Surgeon 
General’s Office. ‘‘ Developments in electro-magnetism during the past hunderd 
years,’’ Arthur E. Kennelly, Harvard University. ‘‘Free thought, yesterday and 
to-day,’’ James Harvey Robinson, New School for Social Research. ‘‘Science in 
Virginia,’’ Lyon G. Tyler, president emeritus of the College of William and Mary. 

12.30 p.m.: Luncheon conference on the history of the Far East. New Ebbitt. 
Gold room. Chairman, Hon. Paul 8. Reinsch, Washington. 

12.30 p. m.: Luncheon conference on Latin America. New Ebbitt. Gold room. 
Chairman, William R. Shepherd, Columbia University. 

3 p.m.: Pan AMERICAN AND DipLomatic RExaTions. Joint session with 
the American Political Science Association. Pan American Building. Chairman, 
Leo S. Rowe, director of the Pan American Union. ‘Recent constitutional changes 
in Latin America,’’ Herman G. James, University of Texas. ‘‘The Monroe doctrine 
as a regional understanding,’’ Julius Klein, Harvard University. ‘‘Pan American- 
ism and the League of Nations,’’ Manoel de Oliveira Lima, Catholic University of 
America, 

4.30 p. m.: Reception to the members of the associations by His Excellency the 
French Ambassador and Madame Jusserand at the French Embassy, 2460 Sixteenth 
Street. 

§.15 p. m.: Recent Evrorean History anv Pourtics. Joint session with the 
American Political Science Association. Large ball room. ‘The Spartacan upris- 
ing in Germany,’’ Ralph H. Lutz, Leland Stanford Junior University. ‘‘The break- 
up of the Hapsburg Empire,’’ Archibald Cary Coolidge, Harvard University. ‘‘ Syria, 
Palestine, and mandates, Stephen P. Duggan,’’ Institute of International Education, 
New York. 


56 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING HELD IN THE 
SMALL BALL ROOM OF THE NEW WILLARD HOTEL, WASHING- 
TON, D. C., ON DECEMBER 29, 1920 


The meeting was called to order at 3.15 p. m., President Edward Channing 
presiding. 

The secretary of the association presented his annual report (printed in full in the 
appendix to these minutes). It was voted that the secretary’s report be accepted 
and placed on file. 

The treasurer of the association presented his annual report and expenditures 
(printed in full in the appendix). 

The president appointed Mr. Herman V. Ames and Mr. James M. Callahan a com- 
mittee to audit the treasurer’s report. This committee reported that they had ex- 
amined the treasurer’s report and the audit thereof by the American Audit Co. and 
had found them to be correct. 

It was voted that the report of the treasurer be accepted and placed on file. 

The treasurer presented the budget as voted by the executive council for the ensu- 
ing years, which was adopted as follows: 


APPROPRIATIONS FOR 1921 


50 
American Council of Learned Societies. ..................-.-2-2---2-2200- 15 

12, 520 

ESTIMATED INCOME 

8, 750 


Mr. George L. Burr announced that at the annual meeting of 1921 he would move 
an amendment to the constitution as follows: 

That, in article III there be substituted for ‘‘$3,’’ ‘‘$5’’; and for ‘‘$50,”’ ‘‘$100”’; 
so that the article shall read: 

Any person approved by the executive council may become a member by paying 
$5, and after the first year may continue a member by paying an annual fee of $5. 
On payment of $100 any person may become a life member, exempt from fees. Per- 
sons not residing in the United States may be elected as honorary or corresponding 
members and be exempt from the payment of fees. 

The secretary of the association presented the report of the executive council 
(printed in full in the appendix to these minutes). 

It was voted that the report be accepted and placed on file. 

Mr. Charles H. Haskins presented with explanatory comment the report of the 
special committee on policy which the council had voted to transmit to the associa- 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 57 


tion with its approval. It was voted that the report be accepted (the report is 
printed in full in the minutes of the executive council). 

It was voted that, in acceptance of the invitations extended by Washington Uni- 
versity, by the mayor of St. Louis, and.by the Governor of Missouri, the thirty-sixth 
annual meeting of the association should be held in St. Louis during the last week in 
December, 1921. 

The secretary read by title the reports which the committees of the association had 
submitted to the executive council. No request having been made from the floor 
for the presentation in full of any of the reports it was voted that they be accepted 
and placed on file. 

The secretary submitted a list of the members who had died during the year.' 

Mr. John M. Vincent offered a memorial of the late James Schouler, the twelfth 
president of the association, which was ordered to be spread upon the records of the 
association (printed in the appendix to these minutes). 

It was voted that a memorial of the late George Louis Beer be prepared and 
spread upon the records of the association (see appendix to these minutes). 

Mr. Victor H. Paltsits, chairman of the committee on nominations, presented as the 
report of the committee the following nominations for officers, members of the exec- 
utive council, and members of the committee on nominations for the ensuing year: 

President, Jean Jules Jusserand. 

First vice president, Charles H. Haskins. 

Second vice president, Edward P. Cheyney. 

Secretary, John Spencer Bassett. 

Treasurer, Charles Moore. 

Members of the executive council: James T. Shotwell, Ruth Putnam, Carl Russell 
Fish, Carl L. Becker, Carlton J. H. Hayes, Sidney B. Fay, Frederic L. Paxson, 
Arthur L. Cross. 

Committee on nominations: Frank H. Hodder, Eloise Ellery, William E. Dodd, 
Henry E. Bourne, William E. Lingelbach. 

Mr. Paltsits announced that Mr. Carl L. Becker, nominated for election to the 
executive council, had withdrawn his name from nomination and that the nomi- 
nating committee had not been able to make another nomination in order to fill the 
vacancy. He therefore offered from the floor the nomination of Mr. St. George 
L. Sioussat for election to the council in the place of Mr. Carl L. Becker. 

No other nominations being made from the floor, it was voted by unanimous con- 
sent that the secretary of the association be requested to cast the ballot of the asso- 
ciation for the persons nominated by the nominating committee, Mr. St. George L. 
Sioussat being substituted for Mr. Carl L. Becker in the nominations for the council. 

The secretary reported that he had cast the ballot as instructed, and the persons 
nominated were declared duly elected. 

Mr. Channing then vacated the chair, and in the absence of the newly elected 
president and first vice president, it was taken by Mr. Edward P. Cheyney, the 
second vice president. 

Mr. Paltsits offered the following amendment to by-law II, to be acted upon at 
the annual meeting of 1921: 

The word ‘‘nomination,”’ line 1, be changed to ‘‘nominating,”’ and the sentence 
beginning ‘‘at such,’’ line 3, and ending ‘‘be chosen,”’ line 7, be omittted. Change 
‘fone day,’’ line 14, to ‘‘two days’’; so that by-law II will read as follows: 

A nominating committee of five members shall be chosen at each annual business 
meeting in the manner hereafter provided for the election of officers of the associa- 
tion. It shall publish and mail to each member at least one month prior to the an- 
nual business meeting such nominations as it may determine upon for each elective 
office and for the next nominating committee. It shall prepare for use at the annual 
business meeting an official ballot containing, as candidates for each office or commit- 
tee membership to be filled thereat, the names of its nominees and also the names of 
any other nominees which may be proposed to the chairman of the committee in writ- 


1 See list of deceased members, p. 60. 


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58 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


ing by 20 or more members of the association at least two days before the annual busi- 
ness meeting, but such nominations by petition shall not be presented until after 
the committee shall have reported its nominations to the association as provided for 
in the present by-law. The official ballot shall also provide, under each office, a 
blank space for voting for such further nominees as any member may present from 
the floor at the time of the election. 

On motion of Mr. Paltsits, the following resolution was adopted: 

Resolved, That the operation of the sentence in by-law IT, beginningin the third line 
with the words “at such convenient time’’ and ending in the seventh line with the 
words ‘‘then to be chosen,’’? namely, the operation of a preliminary referendum, be 
suspended during the year 1921. 

The list of persons appointed by the executive council to serve on committees dur- 
ing the year 1921 was read by the secretary (see minutes of the executive council for 
the list of appointments). 

There being no further business the meeting adjourned. 


JAMES SCHOULER 


The American Historical Association desires to place upon its minutes its tribute 
to the memory of James Schouler, LL. D., former member and oflicer of that body. 
The society long ago gave expression to its esteem by election to the highest offices 
in its gift, but these honors were but one manifestation of the warm personal rela- 
tions which were for many years maintained between him and the members of the 
association. 

As a soldier he fought for the unity of his native land; as a lawyer he contributed 
much to the literature of American jurisprudence; as an historian he devoted a large 
part of his life to the study of his country from its federal foundation; as a benefactor 
he provided, both during his lifetime and hereafter, for the continuation of historical 
studies in a prominent university. 

His volumes will stand upon their merits with the general public, while to many 
students of American history and to the younger members of the profession his 
sympathetic interest and helpfulness will remain a source of inspiration and of grate- 
ful remembrance. 


GEORGE LOUIS BEER 


In the death of Georg> Louis Beer at the height of his powers historical scholar- 
ship has suffered a painful loss, a sad sense of which this executive council desires 
to have expression in its records. His brief life exhibited the best traits of the 
gentleman, the scholar, and the citizen. Graduated from college at the age of 20, 
he received from Prof. H. L. Osgood the impulse that centered his interest on the 
commercial policy of Great Britain toward her American Colonies. For 20 years he 
devoted himself with singleness of aim and untiring industry to study of the historical 
antecedents of this policy, till by 1912.he had embodied in four published volumes 
a complete history of the British colonial system from 1578 to 1765. By this work 
Beer took, at the age of 40, high rank as a historian. In thoroughness of research 
among hitherto unknown or neglected sources, in freshness of interpretation and 
clarity of presentation, he furnished a model of historiography on its more technical 
side, and a massive support for the view that the revolt of the American Colonies 
was the result rather of transient political and economic differences among Britons 
than of permanent antipathies between Britons and Americans. Firmly convinced 


?This is the second sentence in by-law IT and reads as follows: ‘‘ At such convenient time prior to the 
15th of September as it may determine it shall invite every member to express to it his preference regard- 
ing every office to be filled by election at the ensuing annual business meeting and regarding the compo- 
sition of the new nominating committee then to be chosen.” 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 59 


of the truth of this view, Beer became active in promoting good relations between 
the two peoples and in strengthening the bonds between Great Britain and her 
dominions. With the development of the World War, his wide and accurate knowl- 
edge, sound judgment, and practical sagacity came very actively into public service. 
At the Peace Conference he was one of the most trusted of the American experts, 
and when the League of Nations was organized he was named to an important posi- 
tion on its staff. Death took him before he could assume his duties. 

In Beer’s personality the dominant note was modesty and self-effacement. No 
man of his learning and wisdom ever seemed less conscious of them than he. In 
the affairs of the American Historical Association he evaded prominence, but his 
loyalty to its purposes was deep and sincere. It is some poor mitigation of our grief 
over his untimely death to reflect that in the spirit of his writings and in the prize 
that he has established his influence will abide and grow mightily through generations, 


Report OF THE SECRETARY 


My residence in Washington during a sabbatical half year beginning with February 
1, 1920, enabled me to gain much valuable information from Mr. Leland, my prede- 
cessor in office. I gladly take this opportunity to acknowledge his helpfulness, and 
to express my great admiration for the ability with which he has conducted the office, 
as revealed to me in my examination of the records and frequent consultations with 
him in regard to matters that have come up for action. 

My residence in Washington enabled me to avail myself of the services of the assist- 
ant secretary, Miss Washington, whose readiness to help me is gratefully acknowl- 
edged. By reason of this help it was possible to carry on the work of my office during 
this period without extra expense to the association. During the autumn, when I 
have been in Northampton, the expenses have been reduced to a sum of less than $20 
up to December 1. In that sum are included the cost of a brief visit to Branford, 
Conn., to attend the meeting of the committee on policy. 

Membership.—The total number of members December 15, 1920, was 2,524, as com- 
pared with 2,445 in 1919 and 2,519 in 1918. This showing probably means that the 
downward tendency in membership since 1915 has been stopped and progress upward 
has been resumed. ‘The losses for the current year were 206, against 282 in 1919 and 
285 in 1918, and they are nearly the same as in 1914, when they were 205. At no 
timé between 1914 and 1920 have the losses been as low asin 1920. The total gain 
for the year was 285, more than in any year since 1915, when it was 290. Finally, 
this is the first year since 1915 when the membership has not shown a net decrease. 
It is interesting to observe the regional distribution of the net increase of 79. New 
England gained 6, the North Atlantic division lost 5, the South Atlantic division 
gained 16, the North Central division gained 30, the South Central division gained 
2, the West Central division gained 11, the Pacific Coast States gained 8, and foreign 
countries gained 11. The largest net gain, therefore, was in the North Central divi- 
sion, where the net gain was 30, and the next largest was in the South Atlantic divi- 
sion, where it was 16. As to the new members during the year, New York led with 
33, Ohio came next with 26, and California next with 21. 

This favorable report on membership is due chiefly to the present committee on 
membership, Professor Wertenbaker, chairman. The committee has divided the 
country into districts, with associate members appointed by the committee. The 
chairman feels that the organization is not yet perfect, but that it can be improved 
and made to yield still better results. In order that it may best serve the ends it 
was created to reach, the committee should have a long term of office, with power to 
appoint associates as it sees fit. 

Gifts to the association.—During the year the association has received a portrait of 
James Schouler, an ex-president of this association, a bequest in Mr Schouler’s will. 


60 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


The portrait is now in the office of this association in the Woodward Building, Wash- 
ington, D.C. It is for the council to determine what disposition shall be made 
of it. 

By the will of the late George L. Beer the sum of $5,000 was bequeathed to this 
association to found a prize for the best essays in the history of the international 
relations of modern Europe. It is suggested that a committee be appointed to for- 
mulate rules for making award of the prize. 

Questionable societies.—A committee consisting of the president, secretary, apd 
treasurer of the association considered the question referred to them by the council 
of bringing suit against certain questionable societies. The committee was of the 
opinion that the expenses of such a suit were likely to be heavy and while they were 
in sympathy with the idea that such societies should be hindered by all possible 
legal means, they did not think it wise to use the funds of the association in sup- 
porting suits. The action of the committee has been approved by the council. 

Affiliations.—The association is affiliated with the American Council of Learned 
Societies, and is represented in that body by Prof. Charles H. Haskins and Prof. J. 
Franklin Jameson. Professor Haskins has been elected chairman of the American 
Council. The work of this organization in obtaining the coordination of work by the 
various learned societies in the United States is highly important and it is felt that 
it should be supported to the extent of the ability of this association. The Ameri- 
can Council of Learned Societies is affiliated with the Union Académique Interna- 
tionale. 

Vignaud.—November 24, the following cable message was sent to Henry Vignaud, 
in Paris, on his ninetieth birthday: 

American Historical Association sends greetings, congratulations, best wishes. 

Mr. Vignaud replied as follows: 

Your complimentary cable reached me on the eve of my ninetieth birthday. I am 
much touched by this attention coming from an association where contributions to 
historical researches are invaluable and to which 1 am proud to belong. Very weak 
physically, I am otherwise in good health and still able to work. Please accept my 
thanks for your friendly cable and believe me, gratefully yours, Henry Vignaud. 

Joun S. Bassett, Secretary. 


DrEcEASED MEMBERS, 1920 


Mrs. Robert Abbe. Lester Maxwell. 
George Louis Beer. Robinson Locke. 
Edwin Cortland Bolles. Thomas Hooker Loomis 
Helen Boyce. Jesse Macy. 
Richard McCall Cadwalader. Anna Lenore Monroe. 
Richard M. Colgate (life member). Joseph Eugene Moore. 
Abner H. Cook. Henry S. Oppenheimer. 
Franklin Bowditch Dexter (life mem- Thomas McAdory Owen. 

ber). Charles Lawrence Peirson. 
William Sherman Doolittle. Thomas R. Proctor. 
Walter B. Douglas. Virginia Morgan Robinson (Mrs. J. End- 
Joseph Elkinton. ers Robinson). 
James F. Failing. Frederic Schenck. 
Charles Allcott Flagg. James Schouler (life member). 
Sameul Swett Green (life member). William H. Seward. 
Charles F. Gunther. Arley Barthlow Show. 
Francis W. Halsey. Francis W. Smith. 
Edith Shutte Hurst. John William Venn- Watson, 
Grenville Mellen Ingalsbe. Homer J. Webster. 


Robert Matteson Johnston. 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 61 


REPORT OF THE TREASURER, NOVEMBER 30, 1920 


The annual dues of the American Historical Association amount to $7,000. The 
interest on invested funds $1,400; and from miscellaneous sources comes about $150. 
The total receipts available for expenses are $8,550. 

The expenses of the secretary’s and treasurer’s office are $3,000; the regular com- 
mittees require $650; the publication committee uses $700; and the Historical 
Review, under the new prices, costs $8,000; making a total of $12,350. Added to this 
are the payments of $700 for prizes and the projects undertaken by the association, 
making a grand total of $13,050. 

On this basis the deficit is $4,500. This deficit is made up of $3,000 increased 
cost of the Review over the cost for the current year: $700 increase in the office 
expenses; and $800 increase in the items of publications, program, and policy com- 
mittees and the like. 

If it were not for the increase in the cost of the Review, the voluntary contribu- 
tions, amounting this year to $1,652.60, would cover the deficit. This increase of 
$3,000 may be partially offset in several ways. The Review receives payments by 
the publishers of $2,400 a year; it expends for contributions $1,500, leaving a balance 
of $900 which might be used toward the increased cost. The advertising may yield 
$1,000 under the new arrangement with the publishers recently entered into by the 
editors. This will still leave $1,100 to be raised from other sources 

In the judgment of the treasurer, the Review should be left unhampered. Essen- 
tially it is the association, because to three-quarters of the membership it stands as 
their only connection with the organization. Only asa temporary expedient should 
payments be made from the editorial funds of the Review, and then only on the 
advice and consent of the board of editors. The advertising, however, is a field 
hitherto unworked. It is not capable of producing large revenues, but it may be 
made to bring in between one and two thousand dollars a year. 

The ideal situation financially would be to have the dues pay for the Review and 
the running expenses of the association, leaving the income to be used for the proj- 
ects undertaken by the association. As matters now stand, the dues do not cover 
the cost of the Review. 

The expedient of asking a voluntary contribution of $1 has sufficed during the 
past two years; but even were the request to be made for $2 and were the response 
equally wide, their would still be a deficit. 

If the dues were raised to $5 a year and the association suffered a loss of 500 mem- 
bers, the income would be: 


The expenditures would be: 


FInancraAL STATEMENT NOVEMBER 30, 1920 


Receipts: 
$6, 990. 27 


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62 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Receipts—Continued. 
39. 64 
Sales of publications— 
Writings on American History ..................-.- 12.75 
_ $10, 483. 12 
Gift from National Board for Historical Service (Andrew 
16, 667. 84 
Expenditures: 


Committee on nominations ........................+-+- 103. 00 
Committee on membership ................-.-.-.-.---- 71. 35 
Committee on local arrangements ................-.----- 50. 00 
Conference of historical societies ...................-.-- 23. 15 
Committee on publications ........................---- 674. 37 
American Historical Review ..................---.---- 5,087.85 
Historical manuscripts commission.................---- 20. 00 
Herbert Baxter Adams prize...................-.-.---- 200. 00 
Writings on American History .............--......-..- 200. 00 
American Council of Learned Societies................. 122. 85 


Committee on policy........... 133. 68 
American Council on Education...........--.--++-+-+-- 10. 00 
— 9, 786. 48 
Liberty bonds purchased (par value, $2,000)..................---- 1, 835. 80 
Accrued interest on Liberty bonds to date of purchase.............. 14. 40 
16, 667. 84 
(Excess of net receipts over net expenditures, $696.64.) 
Assets: 
General— 
Liberty bonds (par value, $31,450)................. 29, 848. 60 
Accrued interest on Liberty bonds ................- 93. 59 
Cash in Central Trust Co. of New York (endowment 
Publications in stock, estimate.........-.-.-.---seeeeeeeeee 6, 195. 00 
Furniture, office equipment, books, 425. 00 
—————__ 6, 620. 00 
American Historical Review: 
Liberty bonds (par value, $1,200)................-.-00- 1, 131. 64 
Accrued interest on Liberty 6. 38 
, 459. 4 


44, 241. 68 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 63 


AMERICAN HistoricaL REViIEw—ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TREASURER, 
NovEMBER 30, 1920 


Receipts: 
Received from the Macmillan Co. for editorial as peeer as 
$2, 474. 56 
Expenditures: 
Printing, stationery, and 142. 75 
Payments to contributors to Review— 
369. 75 
367.00 
Additional payments to the Macmillan Co. of 5 cents per 
copy on account of July number of Review sent to mem- 
bers of the American Historical Association............ 121. 95 
2, 120. 58 
3; 441. 98 
The assets of the Review in cash and securities are: 
Cash on Haid in Union Trust Co... 1, 321. 40 
Accrued interest on Liberty bonds...................... 6. 38 
2, 459. 4% 


CHARLES Moore, Treasurer. 
Report OF THE AMERICAN AUDIT Co. 


AmeERIcAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION, DECEMBER 20, 1920. 
Washington, D. C. 

Dear Sirs: We have audited your accounts and records from December 1, 1919, 
to November 30, 1920. Our report, including three exhibits, is as follows: 

Exhibit A.—Assets at November 30, 1920. 

Exhibit B.—Statement of receipts and disbursements, general. 

Exhibit C.—Statement of receipts and disbursements, American Historical Review. 

We verified the cash receipts, as shown by the records, and the cash disbursements 
with the canceled checks and vouchers on file, and found the same to agree with the 
treasurer’s report. 

The cash on hand in the different funds was reconciled with the bank statements. 

The Liberty bonds of the association were submitted for our inspection, and found 
to be as called for by the records. 


Respectfully submitted. 
THE AMERICAN AUDIT CO. 


[SEAL.] By C. R. CRanMER, Resident Manager. 


Approved: 

Harry M. Rice, Vice President. 
Attest: 

C. W. Gortcuins, Assistant Secretary. 


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64 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 
Exuisit A.— Assets at November 80, 1920 
General: 
REISE $5, 031. 16 
Liberty bonds (par value $31,450) .................-... 29, 848. 60 
Accrued interest on Liberty bonds .................... 93. 59 
Inventories (not verified by the American Audit Co.)— 
Publications (estimate) ............----.--....e00- 6, 195. 00 
Furniture, office equipment, books (estimate)....... 425. 00 


American Historical Review: 


$41, 593. 35 


Liberty bonds (par value $1, 200)...................... 1, 131. 64 
Accrued interest on Liberty bonds....................- 6. 38 
—. 2, 459. 42 
Endowment fund 
44, 241. 68 


Note—No liabilities are reported other than small current bills, the amount of 


which is not known at this time. 


Exuisit B.—Receipts and Disbursements, December 1, 1919, to November $0, 1920 


Receipts: 
Annual dues 
Registration fees 
Voluntary 


Royalties 

Interest— 
Bank account 39. 64 


Miscellaneous 
Gift from National Board for Historical Service (Andrew 
Totai receipts 


Disbursments: 
Secre 
Pacific 


Committee on membership 
Committee on program 
Committee on local arrangements...............---.---. 
Committee on historical societies 
Committee on publications 
Committee on policy 
American Historical Review 
Historical manuscripts commission 
Herbert Adams Baxter prize 
Writings on American History 
American Council of Learned Societies 
London headquarters 
American Council on Education 
Liberty bonds purchased (par value $2,000) 
Accrued interest Liberty bonds to date of purchase 


and treasurer 
oast Branch 


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Total disbursments 
Cash on hand Nov. 30, 1920 


$6, 990. 27 
150. 00 
107. 87 

1, 652. 60 
111. 33 
49. 70 


1, 369.85 
51. 50 


1, 000. 00 


11, 483. 12 
5, 184. 72 


16, 667. 84 


2, 754. 43 
45. 05 


11, 636. 68 
5, 031. 16 


16, 667. 84 


Committee on nomin 
259. 30 
50. 00 
23.15 
674. 37 
133. 68 
5, 087. 85 
20. 00 
200. 00 
200. 00 
122. 85 
31. 45 | 
10. 00 
1, 835. 80 
14. 40 
j 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 65 


Exursit C.—American Historical Review Receipts and Disbursements, December 1, 1919, 
to November 80, 1920 


Receipts: 
The Macmillan Co., per eee $2, 400. 00 
Interest— 
74. 56 
Total receipts. .......... 2, 474. 56 
3, 441. 98 
Disbursments: 
Stationery, printing, and supplies...................... 142. 75 
Contributors to 1, 483. 00 
Traveling expenses.......... 190. 38 
Macmillan Co. additional payment on account of ‘July 
2, 120. 58 
Cash on hand Nov. 30, 1, 321. 40 
3, 441. 98 


REpoRT OF THE AUDIT COMMITTEE 


The undersigned have examined the above report of the treasurer of the American 
Historical Association as audited by the American Audit Co. and have found the 


same correct. 
HERMAN V. AMEs, 


J. M. CALLAHAN. 
DECEMBER 29, 1920. 


REPORT FROM THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL 


The council has held one meeting during the year, beginning at 9.30a. m., Decem- 
ber 27. Through the omission of the meeting formerly held about Thanksgiving a 
large amount of business had been thrown over to this one meeting. It was necessary 
to hold five sessions of this meeting, in order to complete the work that came before 
the council. Provision made in accordance with a recommendation of the commit- 
tee on policy, to be explained later in the report of that committee, will enable the 
council to take certain parts of its work in a form that may be disposed of without the 
necessity of crowding so much work in sessions held while the annual meetings are 
in progress. 

By a vote of the association in 1915 the reports of the committee are submitted to 
the council, for approval or rejection, and then brought into the annual business 
meeting where they can be called up specifically by 10 members of the association. In 
accordance with this rule the reports of committees are present in this room. The 
following references are made to the contents of these reports: 

The committee on London headquarters reported that the rooms occupied in 
London had been closed, and a balance of $16.27 returned to the treasurer of this 
association. The committee is discharged. 

The board of editors of the American Historical Review reported progress through 
the year. On account of the resignation of Prof. D. C. Munro, Prof. Williston 
Walker was appointed to a place on the board. 


97244°—25——_5 


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66 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


No report was received from the board of editors of The Historical Outlook. 

The committee on the Justin Winsor prize reported that it was unable to agree 
upon an award. The council ordered that the three highest papers be submitted to 
the committee appointed for 1921 with the request that they report as early as 
possible. 

The committee on publications reported that the annual report for 1917 is about to 
be distributed. Materials for the report of 1918, in two volumes, should be ready for 
distribution within two months. The directory of membership will appear in Vol- 
ume I of thisreport. The writings on American history, 1918, will also appear in 
this report. Separates of the directory and the writings will be issued at nominal 
prices. The annual report for 1919 will include the first instalment of the Stephen 
B. Austin paper’s, edited by Prof. Eugene C. Barker, and designed as the fifteenth 
report of the historical manuscripts commission. On account of the slow sale of the 
prize essays, the total receipts of which were only $60.23 during 1920, the council 
authorized the committee on publications to dispose of the stock of these essays in 
the best manner possible. For storing and insuring these essays the cost for the 
year was $113.08. 

The secretary of the committee on the historical congress at Rio de Janerio reported 
progress and the report was accepted. 

The committee on the military history prize reported that the prize was awarded 
to Thomas Robson Hay for his essay on ‘‘ Hood’s Tennessee campaign.” 

The committee on membership reported the results of their efforts to enlarge the 
membership of the association, resulting in a net gain of 79 members. This is the 
first net gain in membership since 1915. The chairman of the committee, Professor 
Wertenbaker, was authorized to enlarge the membership of the committee by appoint- 
ing associate members acting in conjunction with the secretary of the association. 

The committee on bibliography of modern English history reported proress. 

The committee on a manual of historical literature reported that plans have been 
made and cooperating bibliographers have been obtained to carry on the work vig- 
orously. The council decided, in accordance with the recommendation of the com- 
mittee on policy, to revive the committee on bibliography and to combine with it 
the present committee upon the manual of historical literature. 

The council decided, in view of invitations previously extended, to accept the 
invitation to hold its annual meeting of 1921 in St. Louis. Considerations prompt- 
ing this decision were the centennial celebration in St. Louisand the geographical 
position of that city, which makes it advisable that the next meeting of the associa- 
tion should be west of the Alleghany Mountains. 

The historical manuscripts commission reported that the Stephen B. Austin papers 
to be published in the annual report of the association were being prepared, and an 
instalment had been delivered to the committee on publications. 

The committee on history and education for citizenship in the schools made its 
report. The council voted that in discharging the committee at its own request the 
council desires to record its high appreciation of the committee’s laborious service. 
The council referred the report of the committee to the new committee on history 
in schools. 

The report of the conference of historical societies was received and approved. 

No reports were received from the committees on the Herbert Baxter Adams prize 
and on bibliography, which were inoperative during the year. 

The council recommends the creation of the following standing committees: 

On obtaining transcripts from foreign archives. 

On military history. 

On patriotic societies. 

On service. 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 67 


and the following special committees: 

On the documentary publications of the United States Government. 

On the writing of history. 

To formulate rules for the George L. Beer prize. 

To cooperate with the Peoples of America Society in studying race elements in the 
United States. 


REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON POLICY 


Introduction.—The committee on policy was appointed by the council in 1917 for 
the purpose of preparing for consideration by the council a comprehensive program 
of scientific activities which the association might appropriately maintain or under- 
take. By reason of the various services which its members were called upon to per- 
form in connection with the war and with the peace conference, the committee was 
prevented from entering actively upon its duties until the present year. A meeting 
of the committee was held at Branford, Conn., on September 13 and 14, 1920, the 
following members being present: Messrs. Haskins, Becker, Munro, and there being 
also present, by request of the committee, Messrs. Bassett, Moore and Leland, re- 
spectively secretary, treasurer, and ex-secretary of the association. The committee 
had before it a summary of the past and present activities of the association, prepared 
by Mr. Leland; a statement of the financial condition of the association, prepared by 
Mr. Moore; a letter of suggestions from Mr. G. 8. Ford, an absent member of the 
committee; and a proposal by Mr. L. G. Connor respecting an enterprise in agricul- 
tural history. 

The committee held four sessions and agreed upon the following conclusions and 
recommendations. By request of the committee Mr. Leland served as secretary. 

1. Annual meetings.—The committee does not recommend any change in the pres- 
ent practice of the association with respect to the place and time of holding the an- 
nual meetings. It should, however, be observed that the practice of holding the 
meeting during the Christmas holidays is attended by certain difficulties, such as 
congestion of railroad travel, exposure to inclement weather, and interruption of 
family reunions, which would be obviated if some more favorable period were selected 
as a common vacation time by all educational institutions. 

The committee believes that the meetings would benefit from the appointment of 
a standing committee on program. Such a committee might be composed of five 
members (it should not be much larger), three of whom should serve for terms of 
three years, so arranged that one member would retire each year, the other two to 
be appointed for a term of one year and to be selected with reference to the locality 
of the meeting during their term of service. Itis believed that such a committee 
would be able to maintain such a degree of continuity or progression in the subject 
matter of the meetings as might be desirable. It should also anticipate significant 
historical anniversaries, not only in American history but in general history, and 
should especially endeavor to stimulate research by arranging sessions on research 
in the various fields of history, commencing with American history. 

2. Annual report.—The annual report of the association has the status of a public 
document and is widely distributed, going not only to members of the association 
but also to the depository libraries in the United States and to the libraries, socie- 
ties, and institutions in foreign countries which are included in the International 
Exchange Service. It is highly important that the report should be as represent- 
ative as possible of the best work of the association. At present the report contains 
the following material: 

The proceedings of the association, including the account of the meetings that 
appear in the April number of the Review, the minutes of the business meetings of 
the association and of the council, and the reports of officers and committees. 


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68 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Proceedings of the Pacific Coast Branch. 

Presidential address, reprinted from the Review.® 

Papers read at the annual meeting which are not printed elsewhere and which 
are accepted by the committee on publications. 

Papers read before the Pacific Coast Branch and offered by the executive com- 
mittee of the branch. 

Report of the public archives commission, with proceedings of the conference of 
archivists. 

Report of the historical manuscripts commission. 

Proceedings of the conference of historical societies. 

Writings on American history. 

Contribution of the Agricultural History Society. 

The committee has no radical change to suggest in the contents of the report 
except in one particular. The number of papers read at meetings which find pub- 
lication elsewhere than in the report appears to be increasing, with the result that 
the comparatively few papers which are included in the annual report are less and 
less representative. The committee recommends therefore that in place of the papers 
read at the meetings now printed and in place also of the general account of the 
meetings reprinted from the Review there be prepared and printed a scholarly sum- 
mary or abstract of all the papers read at the meetings and not printed in the Review 
or in the report, and that the space thus saved be devoted to the publication of 
more fully developed contributions, such as have sometimes been printed in the 
past, which are too long for presentation in a periodical such as the Review. 

The committee also recommends that writings on American history be again 
divorced from the annual report as soon as other arrangements for its publication can 
be made (see below, sec. 9), and it suggests that the report, rather than the Review, 
is the appropriate place for the publication of the presidential address, provided 
always that it is found possible to bring out the annual report within a reasonable 
time after the annual meeting. The present policy of indexing the reports with a 
view to publishing a cumulated index at suitable periods, say of 10 years, should be 
maintained. The committee especially urges the importance of making every effort 
to publish each annual report within as short a time as possible after the meetings to 
which it appertains, and in any event before the next annual meeting. 

3. Historical manuscripts commission.—Soon after its establishment the council 
define the function of the historical manuscripts commission as the location, cal- 
endaring, and printing of historical manuscripts of historical significance which are 
in private hands and which are not likely soon to be placed in public depositories. 
This policy has not been consistently followed, for the commission has printed 
several collections which are in public depositories and has even printed groups of 
archival documents which do not fall within the category of historical manuscripts. 
The committee believes that the function of the commission as originally defined is 
the proper one, and that the location and calendaring of historical manuscripts should 
receive special attention, while the printing of material in public depositories should 
beavoided. The committee recommends that the commission make an especial effort 
to cooperate with the Library of Congress in locating material suitable for acquisi- 
tion by the Manuscript Division. The committee also recommends that the commis- 
sion give further consideration to the plan, set forth in its report of December, 1916, 
of locating and publishing fugitive Revolutionary material in private hands. Other 
classes of material to which attention might be given are the letters of American 
historians, the records of home missionary societies, etc. 

4. Public archives commission.—The public archives commission has completed, so 
far as practicable, its original program of preparing and printing reports on the 


*Now omitted from the report. 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 69 


archives of the several States. The committee believes that the commission should 
be continued for the practical service it can render to the development of archive 
economy and practice in the United States. The commission should serve as a 
clearing house of information respecting archival matters and its reports should con- 
tain a summary of American legislation respecting archives, together with notes of 
important developments both in this country and abroad. The commission should 
continue to organize annual conferences of archivists, as part of the annual meetings 
of the association, and should be charged with the preparation of the primer of archive 
economy now confined to a special committee. 

5. Committee on the national archives.—The erection in Washington of a building 
for the national archives and the organization of their administration are matters 
of the utmost importance to all students of American history, and the association 
has from its earliest days frequently manifested its deep interest therein. The 
present standing committee on the national archives, consisting of members resid- 
ing in Washington, should be maintained and should receive the utmost support 
that the association can give it. 

6. Committee on securing transcripts from foreign archives.—The Library of Congress 
is engaged in securing from the archives of foreign countries transcripts of those 
documents most important for the history of the United States. In this work the 
Library has at various times asked for the advice of members of the association, and 
the program of copying in the British archives was drawn up by a subcommittee of 
the public archives commission. The chief of the Manuscript Division has requested 
that the association appoint a permanent advisory committee to aid the division in 
the selection of material to be transcribed. The committee accordingly recommends 
that such a committee be established, composed, naturally, of those members of the 
association who have the fullest acquaintance with the material in question. 

7. Committee on the documentary historical publications of the United States Govern- 
ment.—In 1908 a special committee of the association prepared an elaborate report 
on the systematic publication by the National Government of series of historical 
documents. This report was printed as Senate Document 714, Sixtieth Congress, 
second session, and was distributed to members of the association; the committee 
on policy believes that, if possible, results should be obtained from the important 
and exceedingly valuable work of this committee. It is recommended, therefore, 
that the committee be reappointed and charged with the consideration of methods 
by which its program, or some part thereof, may be carried out. 

8. Bibliography.—The committee recommends that the standing committee on 
bibliography be continued and that it be charged with completing and publishing 
the bibliography of American travel which has been long in process of compilation. 
The committee should also be charged with the part which the association has, in 
cooperation with the American Library Association, in compiling a manual of his- 
torical literature to take the place of the manual, now out of date, compiled by C. K. 
Adams. While the selection of new enterprises in bibliography must mainly be 
left to the discretion of the committee, it is nevertheless recommended that work 
be commenced on a check list of collections in American libraries relating to the 
World War; that the committee consider the desirability of continuing the bibliog- 
raphy of the publications of American and Canadian historical societies, compiled 
to 1905 by Mr. A. P. C. Griffin; and especially that the committee should institute 
a series of bibliographical notices of special collections of historical material, printed 
or in manuscript, in American libraries, at the same time undertaking or otherwise 
providing for the preparation of catalogues or calendars of certain classes of material. 

The committee also recommends that the work of compiling and publishing, in 
cooperation with English scholars, a bibliography of modern English history, be 
pushed to completion in charge of the special committee which now has it in hand. 


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70 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


9. Writings on American History.—The committee believes most strongly in the con- 
tinuance of the annual bibliography of Writings on American History which is per- 
haps the best annua] national historical bibliography currently published. It is 
to be regretted that the recent publishers of the volume feel unable to carry it on and 
the committee feels that it should not be printed in the annual report if some other 
means of publication can be found. The committee recommends that the various 
questions connected with the compilation and publication of Writings, especially its 
financial support both from contributions and from sales, be fully considered anew 
and that every effort be made by the association to make this enterprise as self- 
sustaining as possible and to discover some dependable means of guaranteeing any 
avoidable deficit. The committee especially urges that every effort be made to 
insure the prompt publication of the volume, feeling that the delay it now suffers 
seriously detracts from its value and makes more difficult the question of its support. 

10. History teaching in the schools.—The committee has a strong sense of the impor- 
tance of maintaining the interest of the association in the various problems connected 
with the teaching of history in schools. Having in mind the influence which the 
reports of the associations’s committees have had in this field, the committee is of 
the opinion that the standing committee on history in the schools should be recon- 
stituted in order that the association may have a body to which may be referred for 
report the various questions with respect to history teaching which come before it. 
Such a committee should be not only a committee of reference but should also ini- 
tiate investigations appropriate to its field. Emphasis is laid, however, on the desir- 
ability of requiring the committee to submit to the council any report which it is 
proposed to put forth embodying the findings or opinions of the committee, and infer- 
entially of the association. This rule should also be applied with respect to the spe- 
cial committee on history and education for citizenship in the schools, which is now 
engaged in the preparation of its report. 

‘ll. Historical societies.—The committee desires to emphasize the importance of 
maintaining cordial, sustained, and effective relations with the various State and 
local historical societies of the country. The conference of historical societies which 
was inaugurated in 1904 as a regular feature of the annual meetings should be con- 
tinued. The reorganization of the conference which was agreed upon in 1916, the 
details of which are to be found in the annual report of that year ( pp. 232-235), was 
designed to stimulate the conference to greater activity and to provide for a larger 
degree of cooperation with historical societies. The committee has no specific recom- 
mendations to make under this head, thinking it better to wait until the effect of 
the reorganization referred to can be known. 

12. Patriotic societies.—A conference of hereditary patriotic societies was held as 
part of the meetings of 1916, which requested the council to appoint a committee 
composed of representatives of the societies and of the association for the purpose 
of preparing definite suggestions respecting cooperation in the various lines of his- 
torical work. The council appointed a special committee of three, one of whom has 
since died. The committee has not as yet presented a report. It is strongly recom- 
mended, in view of the possibilities of important and effective work, that the com- 
mittee be reconstituted and charged with the preparation of a report in the near 
future. 

13. Military history.—Having in mind the recognition given by the agencies of the 
Government to the claims of history, as attested by such developments as the crea- 
tion of the Historical Branch of the General Staff, the committee recommends that 
there be appointed a standing committee on military history, the chief function 
of which should be to advise and ccoperate with the Historical Branch and with other 
governmental agencies, national and State, which are engaged in preparing histories 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 71 


of the war. The committee should include a representative of the Historical Branch 
and a representative of the National Association of State War History Organizations, 

14. Agricultural history.—The committee favors the maintenance of the existing 
arrangement with the Agricultural History Society, although it hopes that the time 
will come when the society may be able to maintain a publication of its own instead 
of depending upon space in the annual report of the association. The committee 
has considered a proposal laid before it by Mr. L. G. Connor, of the Agricultural 
History Society, for the establishment of a central bureau for gathering, compiling, 
and editing data relating to American agricultural history. The committee believes 
that the association should authorize this enterprise, provided the necessary degree 
of cooperation with the Department of Agriculture can be secured, and provided 
that the considerable funds necessary for so large an undertaking can be obtained 
without any obligation upon the association. : 

15. Historical studies.—The committee has taken into consideration the desire 
expressed by many members of the historical profession for some means of publish- 
ing historical studies which because of their length, technical character, or special 
nature are unsuited to existing historical periodicals; the committee has also consid- 
ered the proposal, developed at some length in 1916, for the establishment of a review 
devoted to European history. The committee is strongly of the opinion that a fur- 
ther medium of publication of historical contributions is desirable; that such a me- 
dium should be established and maintained by the association; and that it should 
attract largely but not exclusively contributions in European history. The commit- 
tee is, however, convinced that it is not expedient to establish a European history 
review. Such areview would inevitably duplicate in certain of its departments 
the work now satisfactorily performed by the organ of the association, the American 
Historical Review, and the committee believes that it would be preferable to devote 
the corresponding additional energy and financial support to enlarging the present 
Review. The committee proposes that there be established, by means of subscrip- 
tions and a guarantee fund, a quarterly publication bearing some such title as 
‘‘ Historical Studies, ’’ or ‘‘ American Studies in History, ’’ or ‘‘ Studies of the Amer- 
ican Historical Association, ’’ which, omitting reviews and notes, shall be devoted 
exclusively to historical contributions of the highest scholarship, but of rather more 
technical or special character than the articles usually published in the Review and 
not subject to the limitations as to length which it is necessary to apply to the arti- 
cles in the Review. 

16. Prizes.—The committee recommends that the prize in military history offered 
this year be known as the Robert M. Johnston prize, in memory of the late Professor 
Johnston, whose generosity and interest in military history made the offering of the 
prize possible. The committee recommends that the prize hereafter to be offered 
annually, in accordance with the Beer bequest, for an essay in the history of recent 
European international relations be known as the George Louis Beer prize, in mem- 
ory of the distinguished donor. 

The committee raises the question whether further modification of the rules gov- 
erning the competition for the Winsor and Adams prizes may not be desirable in order 
more specifically to encourage research by those who have already obtained the 
doctorate. 

17. American Council of Learned Societies.—The committee believes that the asso- 
ciation is to be congratulated on the part it has been able to take in the organization 
of the International Union of Academies and of its American member, the American 
Council of Learned Societies. In the opinion of the committee no more effective 
way can be found for the association to contribute to the advancement of the human- 
istic studies and to cooperate with other associations of scholars, both abroad and in 


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72 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


this country, than through the union and the council. Both should be supported to 
the extent of the association’s ability, and the Andrew D. White fund, inaugurated 
by the National Board for Historical Service and turned over to the association for 
aiding the latter to take part in the enterprises of the union and of the council, should 
be enlarged as it is found possible to do so. The committee believes that one of the 
most useful of domestic enterprises which the American Council of Learned Societies 
could undertake would be the editing of the long-desired Dictionary of American 
Biography, and the committee recommends that the council of the association call 
the attention of the association’s delegates in the Council of Learned Societies to this 
matter. 

18. University center for higher studies in Washington.—In 1916 the council approved 
the plan drawn up by a special committee for establishing in Washington a resi- 
dential center for higher studies in history, economics, and political science, which 
should be under the control” of those departments of the various universities 
contributing to the support of the center. The committee believes that this plan 
is the best that has been proposed for encouraging historical research in Washing- 
ton, and trusts that means may be found for putting it into execution. 

19. Advisory committee on activities.—The committee recommends that the council 
appoint a standing advisory committee, the function of which should be to lay 
before the council from tim to time proposals to the end that the association may 
always be possessed of a well-considered, balanced program of appropriate activities. 
The advisory committee should meet at least once a year, in addition to any meet- 
ings it might hold during the annual meetings of the association, and should invite 
the secretary and treasurer of the association to meet with it. 

20. Committee on service.—In accordance with the previous note of the council 
there should be established a standing committee on service, the chairman of 
which should, in the absence of a salaried secretary of the association, be chosen 
from among the members residing in Washington. The function of the committee 
should be to establish relations of service with the various departments of the Na- 
tional Government, to answer such queries relating to historical matters as may be 
reviewed from time to time by the association, and in general to make more avail- 
able to the public the services of the association and of historical scholarship. 

21. Finance—The committee realizes keenly that it is of little use to plan a pro- 
gram of scientific activities unless adequate financial support is assured. In the 
present state of the association’s exchequer the annual income from dues is entirely 
absorbed by the payments for the American Historical Review and by expenses 
of administration. The only income available for scientific work is that derived 
from the invested funds, which now amount toa little over $30,000. It is clear that 
a vigorous and sustained campaign for an increased endowment must be entered 
upon. The association should have a salaried secretary who could devote all his 
time to its affairs, and for this alone a special endowment of at least $100,000 is 
needed. Further endowment sufficient to assure an income of $10,000 for scientific 
activities alone should be secured. These are, perhaps, ideals difficult of attain- 
ment, but they should never be lost from sight, and every year should see the 
association appreciably nearertothem. In the meantime the committee recommends 
the appointment of a standing committee on endowment which should push immedi- 
ately and actively, by every possible means, the raising of an adequate endowment 
for the association’s work. 

In view of the greatly increased expenses of the American Historical Review, the 
actual printing expenses of which now cost $2.88 per annum, it is plain that the 
association must take active measures to increase the income received from each 
member. The least that can be done would be to raise from $1 to $2 the amount 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 73 


annually requested from each member in addition to hisdues. It is for the council 
to decide whether this is sufficient or whether it may not be necessary to advance 
at once the annual dues to $5. 
CuarLes H. Haskins, Chairman. 
Cart BECKER. 
E. Dopp. 
Guy Sranron Forp. 
Dana C. Munro. 
DrEcEMBER 11, 1920. 


APPENDIX 


ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 1884-1920 
MEMORANDUM FOR THE COMMITTEE ON POLICY 
By Waldo G. Leland 


(September, 1920] 


1. Pacific Coast Branch.—The Pacific Coast Branch was organized in 1903, in order 
that members of the association living in the far West might have more convenient 
opportunities for holding meetings than those afforded them by the annual meetings 
of the association. The branch, which embraces the membership of the association 
residing in the Mountain and Coast States, chooses its own officers and committees, 
arranges for its own meetings, and carries on such activities as it sees fit. Its members 
however, pay their annual dues into the general treasury, which in turn makes a small 
annual appropriation for the administrative expenses of the branch. The executive 
committee of the branch selects certain of the papers read before it for inclusion in 
the annual report of the association. 

2. Agricultural History Society.—The Agricultural History Society was organized in 
Washington in 1919, with the aid of local members of the association. A temporary 
arrangement has been effected between the society and the association whereby the 
principal literary meeting of the former is held as a session of the annnal meetings of 
the latter. The association has agreed to publish in its annual report from 200 to 
300 pages of material supplied by the society, subject to the approval of the commit- 
tee on publications. The society is represented informally in the council and on the 
program committee of the association. 

3. American Society of Church History.—In 1896 the American Society of Church 
History united with the association as a church history section. The arrangement 
was not wholly satisfactory, partly because the membership of the church history 
section was largely of the East, and the annual meetings of the association were not 
always conveniently located for it, but more especially because the governmental 
connection of the association made it impossible for the latter to print in the annual 
reports papers dealing with church or religous history. The section was dissolved in 
1903 and the American Society of Church History was reorganized as an independent 
organization, being incorporated under the laws of New York. A joint session of 
the two societies was held during the annual meetings of 1917. 

4. Mississippi Valley Historical Association.—In 1907 the newly organized Mississippi 
Valley Historical Association applied to the council to be made a branch of the 
association similar to the Pacific Coast Branch, but the council voted that it was 
inexpedient to establish a branch in the Mississippi Valley. The only relation 
between the two organizations is an arrangement whereby they hold a joint session 
presided over by the president of the Mississippi Valley Association as part of the 
annual meetings of the American Historical Association. 


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74 . AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


5. Southern History Association.—In 1890 a joint committee of the American 
Historical Association and the Southern History Association reported to the council 
a plan for the discontinuance of the latter, the transfer of its records and publica- 
tions to the American Historical Association, and the merging of the membership 
of the smaller body in that of the larger by the payment of the usual membership 
dues. The association was to maintain a standing committee for the promotion of 
historical study in the South. No action was taken in the matter. 

6. Foreign headquarters.—In 1913 headquarters were established in London in the 
building occupied by the Royal Historical Society, the association assuming a pro- 
portionate part of the rental of the building, at an annual cost of $150. The purpose 
of this move was to provide an attractive center for American students in England 
and for English students interested in American history. With the establishment 
on a permanent basis of the American University Union this object was attained in 
another way and the headquarters were discontinued early in the present year 
(1920). Plans were on foot in 1914 to establish similar headquarters in Paris, where 
the Minister of Public Instruction had offered accommodations, but the war pre- 
vented them from being carried out. 

7. American Council of Learned Societies.—The association is a member of the Ameri- 
can Council of Learned Societies organized in 1919-20 for the purpose of enabling 
American societies devoted to the humanistic studies to have an effective partici- 
pation in the International Union of Academies, in the organization of which body 
the delegates of the association had had an important part. The association has two 
delegates in the council, one of whom is the present chairman of that body, and 
pays an annual fee of 5 cents foreach member. The association has received from 
the National Board for Historical Service a fund of $1,000, known as the Andrew D. 
White fund, the income of which is to be devoted to aiding it to carry on its share 
of the work of the council. Ten other societies are at present members of the 
council. 

8. Meetings.—The annual meetings of the association have always been regarded 
as one of its most important activities. Thus far meetings have been held in Saratoga, 
Boston, Providence, New Haven, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, 
Richmond, Columbia, Charleston, New Orleans, Buffalo, Detroit, Cleveland, Cincin- 
nati, Indianapolis, Chicago, Madison, and San Francisco. Until 1895 the meetings 
were usually held in Washington, but since then they have been held in rotation in 
such a way as best to suit the convenience of the members of the association. The 
rotation of East, West, and Washington, adapted in 1898 was abandoned, so far as 
Washington was concerned, in 1909. The attendance at the meetings ranges from 
300 to 500, the larger figures generally being secured in Boston, New York, Washington, 
and Chicago. 

The first program committee was appointed for the meetings of 1890, when for the 
first time the practice of grouping the papers according to subject was adopted. In 
1895 was inaugurated the practice of holding simultaneous sessions, in order to 
accommodate the increasing variety of interests. In 1904 so-called round-table oon- 
ferences were instituted for the purpose of providing opportunity for informal dis- 
cussion. Dinner and luncheon conferences are a more recent innovation, and have 
become a regular part of the meetings. 

The subjects to which sessions are devoted vary from year to year and reflect the 
current or temporary interest of the public and of the historical profession. What 
may be called a normal program, however, usually includes sessions or conferences 
on ancient, medieval, modern European, English, and American (including Latin- 
American) history, as well as conferences of archivists, of historical societies, and of 
teachers of history, and joint sessions with the Mississippi Valley Historical Asso- 
ciation and with the Agricultural History Society. 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 75 


9. Historical congresses.—The association has taken part, by sending delegates (at 
their own expense), in various historical congresses, notably the international con- 
gresses of Rome, 1903, Berlin, 1908, and London, 1913, the Congress of Archivists in 
Brussels, 1910, the historical congress of the Norman Millenary in Rouen, 1911, and 
various congresses of the Americanists. Of South American congresses, now being 
held with increasing frequency, the association has been represented at the Congress 
of History and Bibliography in Buenos Aires in 1916, and has accepted an invitation 
to take part in the congress to be held in Rio Janeiro in 1923in celebration of the 
one hundredth anniversary of Brazilian independence. 

10. Historical celebrations.—The association has not pursued any definite policy with 
regard to the celebration of historical anniversaries. The annual meetings of impor- 
tant anniversary years have generally included papers pertinent to the occassion, 
but only once does the association appear to have taken the initiative in calling 
attention to an approaching anniversary; in 1886 a special committee waited upon 
President Cleveland to ask him to represent to Congress the desirability of a suitable 
celebration of the Columbian quartercentenary. Participation in anniversary cele- 
brations has usually been upon invitation from their organizers. 

11. Annual report.—The annual report of the association has the status of a public 
decument. It is transmitted to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, who 
submits it, or such part of it as he may see fit, to Congress for publication. The 
association is allowed 2,000 copies. The Smithsonian Institution distributes it to 
foreign libraries and institutions through the International Exchange Service, and the 
Superintendent of Documents distributes it to the depository libraries in this 
country. 

The annual report usually contains from 1,000 to 1,200 pages and is generally 
printed in two volumes. The association has been allowed such reprints from the 
report as it may have required. The publication of the report is under the direction 
of the committee on publications and is the chief function of the editor of the asso- 
ciation, who serves as secretary of the committee. A cumulative index to papers 
and reports was printed as Volume II of the report for 1914, and the current indexes 
are now being made with a view to their cumulation at intervals of 10 years. At 
present the annual report normally contains the following: 

Proceedings of the association, including the account of the meetings printed in 
the Review, the minutes of the business meeting and of the council, and the reports 
of officers and committees. 

Proceedings of the Pacific Coast Branch. 


Presidential address.‘ ‘ 

Papers read at the annual meeting which are not printed elsewhere, and which are 
accepted by the committee on publications. : 

Papers offered by the executive committee of the Pacific Coast Branch. 

Report of the public archives commission, with proceedings of the conference of 
archivists. . 

Report of the historical manuscripts commission. 

Proceedings of the conference of historical societies. 

Writings on American history. ; ; 

Contributions of the Agricultural History Society. 

12. Historical manuscripts commission.—The historical manuscripts commission 
was established in 1895 after an unsuccessful effort to secure congressional legisla- 
tion creating a governmental commission. The policy of the commission, so far as 
it has been defined, has been to locate, calendar, and print historical manuscripts 
of national significance in private hands, not likely soon to be placed in public 
depositories. This policy has not been consistently followed. Since the first years 
of the commission’s existence no systematic effort has been made to locate collec- 
tions of papers in private hands, and there has been almost no calendaring of the 


‘Printed in the Review. Now omitted from the report. 


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76 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


sort that characterizes the reports of the Royal Historical Manuscripts Commission. 
Of the collections of documents printed in the annual reports several do not fall 
within the category of historical manuscripts in private hands. Two of them, the 
Texan Diplomatic Correspondence and the Despatches of the French Commissioners 
to the United States, are public archives rather than historical manuscripts. Other 
collections, such as the Chase papers, the Van Buren autobiography, and the Austin 
papers, are in public depositories and might conceivably have been published by 
other agencies. The Calhoun, Bayard, and Hunter, and the Combs, Stephens, and 
Cobb collections are, however, well within the category indicated. 

At the present time the commission has in press the Van Buren autobiography 
and the first of three volumes of Austin papers, and has in preparation a volume of 
letters to Calhoun. Some years ago the commission formnlated a plan for collecting 
as widely as possible and printing Revolutionary letters and papers in the possession 
of individuals, but this plan has not been carried out. 

The commission joined with the Library of Congress some years ago in preparing 
and printing a set of suggestions for the editing and publication of original documents. 

13. Public archives commission.—The public archives commission was organized in 
1899, its function being to report on the character of the historical archives of the 
several States and of the United States, and on the means taken for their preser- 
vation and publication. After an unsuccessful effort to secure an appropriation 
of $5,000 from Cengress for carrying on its work the commisson decided to con- 
fine its attention to the archives of the States. Adjunct members were appointed 
to represent the commission in the various States and they undertook to prepare 
descriptive reports on State archives. In this way reports have been made on the 
archives of over 40 States. These reports vary greatly in character, from the most 
summary accounts to detailed inventories. The work has been done without re- 
muneration other than the reimbursement of expenses incurred in travel and for 
clerical assistance. 

The commission has also published several bibliographies of printed archival 
material and lists of special classes of documents, such as Bibliography of the Printed 
Archives of the Original States; List of Representations and Reports of the Board of 
Trade; List of the Journals and Acts of Colonial Legislatures; List of Commissions 
and Instructions to Colonial Governors, etc. 

Through a subcommittee the commission has directed the work of transcribing 
documents from the British archives for the Library of Congress. 

Since its establishment the commission has carried on a persistent propaganda for 
appropriate legislation respecting archives designed to insure their preservation and 
their proper administration and utilization, and it is not too much to credit the com- 
mission with most of the advance in such matters that has been achieved in the 
United States during the last 20 years. Furthermore, the commission has been able, 
through participation in the Congress of Archivists in Brussels in 1910 and through 
the annual conferences of archivists which it instituted in 1909, to inculcate and 
encourage in this country the best methods of archive administration. : 

The commission has never published documentary material, the council having 
decided adversely in that matter. 

At present the commission is in a state of suspended activity. A primer of archive 
economy, planned by the commission, is now being prepared by a special committee 
of two, one of whom is the chairman of the commission. 

14. Federal archives.—The association has, from its first meeting in Washington, 
been concerned for the safe-keeping, proper administration, and historical utiliza- 
tion of the Federal archives. Special committees have been appointed on the 
subject, and Congress has frequently been memorialized. There is reason to hope 
that a national archives’ building may be erected in the not too distant future. The 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 77 


association has a standing committee whose principal function is to watch the situ- 
ation in Washington and exert whatever influence it may have to secure proper pro- 
vision for the archives. The committee consists of the chiefs of the Department of 
Historical Research in the Carnegie Institution, of the Manuscript Division in the 
Library of Congress, and of the Historical Branch of the General Staff. 

15. United States historical documentary publications.—In 1908 a special com- 
mittee was appointed, which received the status of a subcommittee of the govern- 
mental committee on department methods, to consider the question of systematic 
publication by the Government of historical documents from its archives. The com- 
mittee drew up a plan for such publication and embodied it in a careful and com- 
prehensive report which was presented to Congress by President Roosevelt and 
printed. No further action has been taken in the matter. 

16. Bibliography.—The bibliographical output of the association has been varied 
and large. It commenced with bibliographies, 1889-1892, of members of the associa- 
tion compiled first by Paul Leicester Ford and later by A. Howard Clark; A. P. C. 
Griffin’s Bibliography of Historical Societies was commenced in the annual report for 
1890, its final edition being printed as Volume II of the report for 1905. In 1894 the 
council voted to expend not more than $500 in securing ‘‘systematic bibliographies 
representing the progress and condition of American historical science.’’ 

In 1898 a standing committee on bibliography was appointed, and under its direc- 
tion were compiled most of the bibliographies which have appeared in the annual 
reports. It was influential in securing the compilation and publication of J. N. 
Larned’s Literature of American History; it published a trial edition of a Union List 
of Collections on European History in American Libraries (Princeton, 1912) and took 
charge of the Bibliography of American Travels, which was commenced by a special 
committee and which now, comprising about 4,500 titles, is awaiting final editing 
and publication. The committee commenced work on a finding list of historical peri- 
odicals in American libraries, a task which has been taken over by the Library of 
Congress, and prepared a list of American historical periodicals which was published 
in the annual report for 1916. The committee has been suspended for lack of funds 
to enable it to carry on any systematic work, but the chairman of the committee has 
been authorized to cooperate with the American Library Association in the compila- 
tion of a new bibliography of general history to take the place of the Manual of His- 
torical Literature published by C. K. Adams. 

17. Writings on American history—Writings on American History is an annual 
bibliography compiled and published since 1906 under the auspices of the association, 
which subscribes $200 each year to a fund to which other historical societies and some 
individuals also subscribe. The compilation is under the direction of Dr. J. F. 
Jameson and is performed by Miss Grace G. Griffin. For some years the Yale Press 
has brought out the annual volume at a net loss, but it has now been obliged to give 
up its publication, and the bibliography will appear as part of the annual report of 
the association. 

18. Bibliography of modern English history.—A conference on research in English 
history, held during the meetings of 1908, requested the council to appoint a com- 
mittee on the preparation of a bibliography of modern English history along the 
lines of the work by the late Charles Gross for the earlier period. The council 
appointed such a committee, which at once secured the cooperation of a group of 
English scholars, and the work of compilation was planned and commenced. By 
1914 the American collaborators had completed their contribution to the first two of 
the three volumes which it was proposed to publish, but the project was interrupted 
by the war, and the committee was authorized by the council to suspend its activi- 
ties. In 1919 the chairman of the committee was authorized by the council to 
secure if possible the resumption of work on both sides and to push for the comple- 


78 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


tion of the bibliography. The association holds in trust a gift of $125 which the 
committee secured toward the expense of publication. 

19. History teaching in schools.—(a) Committee of seven. In 1896 the association 
appointed a committee of seven to prepare and recommend to the National Educa- 
tion Association a plan of historical studies in secondary schools. The final report 
of the committee was published in 1899, The Study of History in Schools (Macmillan), 
and has had an influence of first importance upon history teaching. 

(b) Committee of five. In 1907 the committee of review of college entrance exam- 
inations asked for a new definition of the field of ancient history and for the recon- 
sideration of certain other points in the report of the committee of seven concerning 
college admission requirements. A committee of five was appointed to deal with 
the request and in general to review the report of the committee of seven. The 
new committee prepared a report which was accepted by the council and was 
published as a supplement to the report of the committee of seven, and also in the 
annual report of the association for 1910. 

(c) Committee of eight. A conference on the teaching of history in the elementary 
schools which was held as part of the meetings of 1904 requested the council to appoint 
a committee to investigate and report to the association on a course of history for the 
elementary schoolsand on the proper training of teachers. Inresponse to this request 
the committee of eight was appointed which held conferences at successive meetings 
of the association and presented a report which was published in 1909, The Study 
of History in the Elementary Schools (Scribner’s Sons). 

(d) Committee on qualifications of teachers of history. In 1910 a conference of 
teachers of history in normal schools and teachers’ colleges requested the council to 
appoint a committee on the qualifications of teachers of history in highschools. As 
a result of this request, a committee was appointed the principal activity of which 
was to encourage discussion of the subject by teachers’ associations and similar 
bodies. The committee did not attempt to establish any standard qualifications 
for history teaching and presented no formal report. It was discontinued in 1913. 

(e) Committee on history in schools. In 1914 a standing committee on history in 
schools was appointed for the purpose of dealing with any matters in its field that 
might come before the association. The first matter to be referred to it was the re- 
quest from the College Entrance Examination Board for a fuller definition of the 
requirements in history. The committee held various conferences and carried on 
much correspondence, but the war interrupted its work, and it did not present any 
report. It was suspended in 1919. 

(f) Joint committee on history and education for citizenship in the schools. In 
the early part of 1919 the National Board for Historical Service, at the request of 
the National Education Association, appointed a ‘‘reconstruction’’ committee on 
history in the schools. The object of the committee was to prepare a complete 
report on the study and teaching of history in all schools below the grade of college, 
having in mind the conditions brought about by the war. This committee, with 
additions, was adopted by the council as a committee of the association. The 
National Board having ceased to exist, the committee is no longer a joint one. The 
committee has held a large number of conferences in various parts of the country and 
has presented tentative reports. It is expected to present its complete report at the 
coming meeting of the association. 

20. History teaching in colleges and universities.—No systematic consideration has 
been given to the subject of the study and teaching of history in colleges and uni- 
versities. Frequent conferences have been held in connection with the annual 
meetings for discussing certain aspects of the subject, such, for example, as the first 
year in history, the requirements for the doctorate, the teaching of oriental history, 
etc. Two informal dinner conferences in 1917 and 1919 have discussed the teach- 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 79 


ing of the history of the Far East, and a committee appointed at these conferences 
has had the subject under consideration, but this is an activity within rather than of 
the association. 

21. Historical Outlook.—The History Teacher’s Magazine was founded in 1909 asa 
private enterprise. In 1911, on recommendation from the board of editors of the 
American Historical Review, the association took the magazine under its auspices, 
giving it an annual subsidy of $600, securing an equal amount for it from other 
sources, and appointing an advisory editorial board. In return for this support 
the publisher supplied the magazine at half rate to the members of the association 
and of the history teachers’ associations. This arrangement was continued, but the 
subsidy was later diminished to $400 and then to $200. During the war, with the 
aid of the National Board for Historical Service the magazine became self-support- 
ing and the subsidy of the association was withdrawn, as was also the reduction in 
the subscription rate to members of the association. The title of the magazine was 
changed to Historical Outlook in order that the pedagogical element in the publica- 
tion might not appear too prominent. In 1919 the council, at the request of the 
editor, appointed a board of editors. 

22. Historical societies.—In 1885 the association voted to urge upon its members 
residing in the newer parts of the United States the desirability of organizing and 
maintaining local historical societies; thus from its beginning the association has 
displayed the keenest interest in the welfare of State and local historical organ- 
izations. In 1889 a list of historical societies was printed in the papers, and in the 
same year the council directed the officers to communicate with the State histor- 
ical societies expressing the desire of the association to cooperate with them and to 
exchange publications, inviting them to send representatives to the next meeting 
of the association, and requesting of each society a brief account of its origin, history, 
organization, publications, collections, and activities in general. 

In 1897 a special session of the meetings was devoted to historical secieties, and a 
plan of affiliation between State and local societies and the association was offered 
to the council but was not acted upon. In 1898 the general committee was estab- 
lished, one of whose functions was to consider the relations between the association 
and other historical societies. In 1904 a subcommittee of the general committee 
was authorized to prepare a report on the best methods of ‘organization and work on 
the part of state and local historical societies. This report, carefully prepared, was 
published in the annual report for 1905. 

The most important development in the relations of the association with local 
and State societies was the inauguration, in 1904, of the annual conferences of his- 
torical societies for the discussion of problems and for the planning of cooperative 
activities. The conference is now a semi-independent body, electing its own officers, 
except for the secretary who is appointed by the council and who ranks as a com- 
mittee chairman, preparing the program of its meetings, and in general conducting 
its own affairs, always under the auspices of the association. This reorganization of 
the conference dates from 1917 but has not yet been fully effected, especially as 
regards financial support from the societies which belong to the conference. The 
conference particularly desires the publication of a handbook of American historical 
societies and agencies and the continuation of A. P. C. Griffin’s bibliography to the 
present date. The proceedings of the conference are at present printed in the 
annual report of the association. 

The principal cooperative activity undertaken by the conference has been the 
calendaring of documents in French archives relating to the Mississippi Valley. A 
fund of $4,000 was raised for this work; the exploration of the archives has been 
practically completed and the calendar is being edited by the Carnegie Institution, 
which proposes to publish it. 


80 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


23. Patriotic societies—A conference of patriotic societies was held in connection 
with the meetings of 1916 and requested the council to appoint a committee to pre- 
pare definite suggestions for 1aethods of cooperation between the association and 
the patriotic societies in various lines of historical work. A committee of three was 
appointed in 1917. 

24. Europeanrhistorical societies.—In 1910 a committee was appointed to consider the 
preparation of a report on the work of European historical societies. The committee 
printed in the annual report for 1911 aJist of European societies but with no details 
respecting them. The committee reported that in its opinion a list of European 
societies with such information respecting their organization, governmental con- 
nection, publications, activities, etc., as might be useful to American societies and 
scholars was a desideratum. 

25. Military history.—A conference on military history was held as part of the meet- 
ings of 1912 and appointed a committee on military history. This committee was 
confirmed by the council and became one of the committees of the association. The 
committee arranged a second conference on military history as part of the meetings 
of 1913 and presented a report on the status of the study of military history in the 
United States. The committee was enlarged to be a committee on military and naval 
history, but it made no further reports and was discontinued in 1915. The commit- 
tee, or at least certain members of it, should be credited with the founding of the 
Military Historian and Economist which was edited for a short time by the late Pro- 
fessor Johnston and Col. A. L. Conger and which was suspended in 1917 when the 
editors were sent overseas in the military service. The committee also had an impor- 
tant part in preparing the way for the establishment, in 1917, of the Historical 
Branch of the General Staff. 

26. Revolutionary records.—Following action by the council in 1913 and the holding 
of a special conference in Washington in 1914, a committee of five was appointed to 
act in an advisory capacity to the National Government in locating, copying, and pub- 
lishing the military and naval records of the Revolution. Thecommittee functioned 
for about a year, rendering valuable service to the War and Navy Departments, until 
the failure of appropriations caused the work to be stopped. Much material was 
gathered, largely from the archives of the original States, but none of it has been 
published. 

27. Prizes.—(a) Justin Winsor and Herbert Baxter Adams prizes. In 1895 the 
association voted to offer a prize of $100 for the the best historical monograph, exclu- 
sive of university dissertations, based on original investigation; and also voted to estab- 
lish a medal of equal value to be awarded at suitable intervals for the best published, 
work of historical research. The second vote was not carried into effect, but the prize 
of $100 was awarded in 1896 to Dr. Herman V. Ames. The offer of a cash prize was 
renewed and thereafter it was called the Justin Winsor prize. Upon the death of 
Herbert B. Adams, who left an unrestricted bequest of $5,000 to the association, 
the Herbert Baxter Adams prize in European history wasestablished. Thereafter each 
prize was increased to $200 and they were awarded in alternate years for unpublished 
essays only. The essays were at first printed in the annual reports, but in 1909 their 
publication in a separate series was commenced. The cost of publication increased 
rapidly while the sales of essays tended to remain at a low figure, so that after a short 
time the association found itself incurring an annual deficit of between $500 and $1,000. 
Publication of the essays was discontinued in 1917, unless by consent of author and 
the committee on publications they should be included in the annual report, and 
printed essays were admitted to the competition. 

(b) Military history prize. The late Prof. R. M. Johnston made an anonymous gift 
to the association of $250, to be used as a prize for the best monograph in the field of 
military history that should be offered in a competition held by the association. 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 81 


The competition has several times been extended but was finally closed on July 1 of 
the present year. 

(c). George L. Beer prize. The late George L. Beer left a bequest of $5,000 to the 
association on condition that the income from it should annually be offered asa prize 
for the best essay dealing with European international relations since 1895, 

28. Aids to research.—In 1912 the council appointed a committee to consider meth- 
ods of promoting research in American and European history. The committee recom- 
mended the establishment of a standing committee on aids toresearch and of 
a special committee on the formation of a research fund. It was proposed that the 
former should prepare a list of funds available for historical research, should receive 
and pass on applications for aid, should recommend applicants to institutions having 
funds, and should allot grants from funds which might be secured for the purpose by 
the special committee. The committee was discharged in 1915 and no further action 
was taken in the matter. 

29. Historical studies in Washington.—The association has long concerned itself 
with encouraging historical research in the governmental collections in Washington. 
In 1901 a committee was appointed to consider a proposal by Dr. J. F. Jameson for 
the establishment of a school for historical studies in Washington. This committee 
reported and was discharged, its place being taken by a committee on the promo- 
tion of historical research in Washington. At this time (1902) the Carnegie Institu- 
tion of Washington was founded and the members of the committee, together with 
the board of editors of the American Historical Review, succeeded in securing the 
establishment in the institution of the Deparment of Historical Research. No 
provision was made, however, for bringing students to Washington or for giving 
them instruction. 

In 1915 a conference was called at Columbia University which resulted in the 
formation of a plan for the establishment in Washington of a university center for 
higher studies in history, economics, and political science, which should serve as an 
adjunct to those departments in the contributing universities. The plan has been 
approved by the councils of the historical and political science associations, but it 
is held in abeyance until adequate funds can be secured. 

30. Colonial entries in the Privy-Council register.—In 1907 the association contrib- 
uted $250 toward the expense of transcribing and publishing the colonial entries in 
the register of the Privy Council. 

31. Original narratives of early American history.—In 1902 the council approved the 
publication, under the auspices of the association but without expense to it, of the 
series of reprints since published by Scribner’s Sons under the title ‘‘Original Nar- 
ratives of Early American History.’’ The general editor was Dr. J. F. Jameson, 
who made annual reports to the association while publication was in progress. 

32. Reprints relating to European history.—In 1907 the council appointed a com- 
mittee to consider the policy of publishing a series of reprints relating to European 
history similar to the series of Original Narratives noted above. No report was 
made. 

33. Calendar of printed letters relating to American history.—In 1908 a committee was 
appointed on the compilation of a calendar of printed letters relating to American 
history, with instructions to draw up a plan of work and to secure the necessary 
cooperation. No report was made. 

34. Documentary history of the States.—In 1913 Prof. E. S. Meany presented to the 
council a project for the publication of a documentary history of the States, one vol- 
ume for each State, for which the prospective publishers desired the support of the 
association. The project was referred to the executive committee of the Pacific 


97244°—25——_6 


82 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Coast Branch for consideration and report as coneerns the Pacific States only. No 
report has been made. 

35. Legal history.—In 1897 a committee was appointed to inquire into the ‘‘ feasa- 
bility of instituting a section devoted to historical jurisprudence or legal history,’’ 
but no further action was taken in the matter. 

36. Historic sites.—In 1906 the general committee commenced an inquiry into the 
marking of historic sites, but did not conclude it. In 1909 a special committee of 
five was appointed which gathered considerable material relating to various sections 
of the country, but which did not complete its report. The material gathered and 
the partial reports were turned over to the secretary of the association, and the com- 
mittee was discharged. 

37. Historic highways.—In 1915 a committee of one was appointed at the request 
of the National Highways Association to cooperate with that body in selecting 
appropriate names for the historic highways of the country. The committee was 
successful in securing a considerable degree of cooperation from the various States 
historical societies and and agencies. 

38. Historical study of colonies and dependencies.—From 1898 to 1900 there was a spe- 
cial committee on the historical study of colonies and dependencies. It cooperated 
with a similar committee of the Economic Association, outlined a series of reports, 
and held a conference during the meetings of 1899. It reported its inability to 
carry out the program it had set for itself, and was discharged. The net results of 
its activities consist of a few papers printed in the annual reports and the Review, 
to which may be added as a collateral result the volume by Prof. A. L. Lowell on 
Colonial Civil Service. 

39. American year book.—In 1909 Prof. A. B. Hart was appointed a committee of 
one to confer with representatives of other associations respecting the publication 
of an American yearbook of history, economics, and politics. The project was car- 
ried through and the volume has appeared annually since 1910. 

40. Monographic history of the United States.—In 1900, after favorable report by a 
special committee, the council recommended that a committee of five be appointed to 
arrange for the publication under the auspices of the association of a cooperative mono- 
graphic history of the United States. The proposal met with opposition in the busi- 
ness meeting and was abandoned so far as the association was concerned. It was 
after carried through as a private enterprise. 


REPoRT OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW 


The principal question apart from routine that occupied the board this year is 
the cost of production of the Review. The Macmillan Co. reported that under 
our contract with them they had published the Review during the last three years 
at a loss of approximately $3,000. This, of course, can not continue. The possible 
means of retrenchment are a considerable reduction of the size of the Review, the 
use of cheaper paper, or less payment for articles and reviews. The first of these, 
a reduction in the size of the Review, has already been made. The other two 
measures the board did not feel to be wise. Some increase in the income from 
advertising seemed possible and steps have been taken to secure this addition. 
None of these are, however, adequate to restore the balance, and the board recom- 
mends to the executive council an increase in payment to Macmillan to 70 cents 
per number delivered to the members of the association. 

The board takes pleasure in reporting an increase in the productivity of Amer- 
ican historical scholarship, so far as this can be tested by the number of articles 
submitted for publication in the Review, as compared with the paucity of articles 
during the war years. In this connection the board calls attention to the series of 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 83 


three articles analyzing much of the recently published documentary materials con- 
cerning the outbreak of the war, prepared at their request by Prof. S. B. Fay. 

The board begs to remind the council that the term of Prof. J. H. Robinson as 
one of the editors of the Review expires at this time. 


Respectfully submitted. 
E. P. CHEyNey, Chairman. 


REPORT OF THE HISTORICAL MANUSCRIPTS COMMISSION 


The work of the commission was completed some time ago for a considerable time 
in advance, and therefore it has been unnecessary to take any action recently. 

The manuscript of Doctor Barker’s first volume was placed in the hands of the 
committee on publications some months ago, as I understand, and he is doubtless at 
work on the second volume. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Justin H. Smita, Chairman. 


NoveEMBER 18, 1920. 
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE JUSTIN WINSOR PRIZE 


The committee on the Justin Winsor prize has been reduced from five to four 
members, by the inability of Professor Hodder to serve. The four remaining mem- 
bers have given careful examination to four essays submitted in the competition, and 
are unable to agree that any one of them is entitled to receive the award.5 

FreEpERIc L. Paxson, Chairman. 


DeceMBER 20, 1920. 


REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS 


Mr. Allen R. Boyd, as editor, has submitted to me a statement covering his first 
year’s work, the substance of which I give in the two following paragraphs. 

The annual report for 1917 is about to be distributed. Materials in the annual 
report for 1918 will fill two volumes and should be ready for distribution within two 
months. Besides the records and articles to which attention was called in my last 
report, Volume I will contain the first careful directory of our membership printed 
since 1911 and the annual bibliography “ Writings on American History, 1918,” 
compiled by Miss Grace Gardiner Griffin. The bibliography by Miss Griffin is the 
thirteenth number of a continuous series, opening with 1906. Six independent 
volumes, bibliographies for 1912, 1913, 1914, 1915, 1916, and 1917, have appeared, 
it will be remembered, through the public-spirited efforts of the Yale University 
Press. Last spring, however, the Yale University Press decided to abandon the 
project. Accordingly your committee concluded that the annual report might 
readily be utilized to carry on this useful aid to American historical scholarship. 
Separates of both the directory and the “‘ Writings ’’ will be issued at nominal prices. 
Separates of the other contents of Volume I have already been issued in advance of 
the completed volume. The annual report for 1919 will fill two volumes, for, 
besides containing materials afforded by the Cleveland meeting, it will include (in 
Volume II) the first instalment of the Stephen F. Austin papers edited by Prof. 
Eugene C. Barker and designed as the fifteenth report of the historical manuscripts 
commission. 

Owing to the great increase of expense in printing, Mr Boyd calls attention to the 
need of watching closely the size of our volumes. The committee must consequently 
be granted authority to exercise its judgment in cooperation with the editor in this 
matter and to eliminate, if necessary, or to restrict some things offered for publication. 


6 The council decided to defer action on the award until the next meeting. 


84 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


In view of the large amount of time spent by the editor on this year’s work—a great 
mass of material having accumulated—I ask that an additional sum of $100 be 
given him for this, his first year’s labor. Mr. Boyd has been tireless in his reading 
of proof, giving freely of his time to a multitude of details, and has proved in a variety 
of ways to be a most conscientious and efficient editor. 

The Herbert Baxter Adams prize of $200 was awarded in 1919 to Dr. William Thomas 
Morgan, assistant professor of European history in Indiana University, for his mono- 
graph entitled, ‘‘English Political Parties and Leaders in the Reign of Queen Anne, 
1702-1710’? (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1920, pp. 427). Efforts are still 
being made to have published without expense to the association Dr. F. L. Nuss- 
baum’s essay on ‘‘ E. J. A. Ducher,’’ which was awarded the Adams prize in March, 
1918. If these efforts prove unsuccessful, the association will be bound, I think, to 
print the book. This will mean, according to very recent estimates, an appropri- 
ation of $1,000. 

Figures on the sale of our publications for the year are not encouraging, as the follow- 
ing comparisons show: 

Publications sold 1916-17, $542; 1917-18, $260.06; 1918-19, $503.59; 1919-20, $161.03, 
Of the total receipts only $60.23 came from the sale of our prize essays. Against these 
small receipts is this year’s cost of storing and isuring the prize essays—$113.08. 
In other words, we are losing this year $52.85 on this item. I recommend that the 
chairman of your committee, the editor, and the treasurer of the association act as a 
special committee of three in disposing of this stock of prize essays promptly, giving 
to the 10 authors first an opportunity of taking over all but 10 copies of their respective 
essays at a low cost such as may seem fair to the special committee. By this means 
we may be able to settle a problem which is something of a menace constantly to our 
treasury. The annual appropriation of your committee was $750. Of this amount 
$674.37 has been spent in various ways, leaving a balance of $75.63. 

The projected volume of historical essays in commemoration of 25 years’ services 
of the American Historical Review (1895-1920) has had to be abandoned. The special 
committee fulfilled last year its assigned task of making selection for the volume. 
But in May, 1920, it was found to be impossible to secure its publication without 
expense to the association, owing to the conditions existing in the book trade. 


Respectfully submitted. 
H. Barrett LEARNED, Chairman. 


REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP 


The committee on membership began its activities in April, 1920. Since the geo- 
graphical distribution of the committee made a meeting impracticable, Mr. Leland, 
Professor Bassett, Professor Zook, and the chairman met in conference in Washington 
March 8 to decide upon a plan of campaign. 

The first step was to divide the country into districts and to assign one to each 
member of the committee. Thus each commstteeman was held responsible for the 
task of increasing the membership in his own district. To Prof. L. F. Brown was 
assigned New York; to Prof. E. H. Byrne, Wisconsin and Iowa; to Prof. A.C. Krey, 
Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming; to Prof. F. E. Melvin, 
Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Colorado; to Prof. R. A. Newhall, Connecticut and 
Rhode Island; to Prof. J. S. Orvis, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and 
Maine; to Prof. C. W. Ramsdell, Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Arkansas; to 
Prof. J. C. Randall, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida; to Prof. A. P. Scott, Ohio, Indiana, Illi- 
nois, and Michigan; to Prof. E. J. Van Nostrand, California, Oregon, Washington, 
Utah, Nevada, Idaho, New Mexico, Arizona, and Montana; to Prof. G. F. Zook, 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia; to Prof. T. J. Wertenbaker, 


New Jersey. 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 85 


Since the plan outlined entailed a large amount of work it was suggested that 
each member of the committee appoint as many associate members to assist him as 
he deemed advisable. As with the committeemen, so the associate members were 
to be made to feel that they were personally responsible for a certain part of the 
work, either in a geographical district or with a certain group of persons. 

Especial efforts were directed toward ‘securing recruits among graduate students, 
and it was suggested that graduate teachers in the larger universities, especially in 
the summer schools, would be the proper persons to work this field. An attempt was 
made also to increase the membership of the association among persons not teachers 
or writers of history but who are deeply interested in its study. It was thought cer- 
tain that there are many men and women in the country, persons of leisure often, who 
are voluminous readers of history, or are especially interested in some phase of history 
who, if properly approached, would gladly join the association. 

To facilitate this work Mr. Leland and Professor Bassett revised and brought up to 
date a short sketch of the association published some years ago. A number of copies 
of this pamphlet with a supply of appfication blanks were sent to each member of the 
committee. 

To supplement this work, upon the advice of the secretary, a list of names was 
selected from Writings on American History for 1917, to whom copies of the sketch 
of the association and application blanks were sent out from the secretary’s office. 

Although the results obtained during the year were not all that had been desired 
on the whole encouraging progress has been made. For the first, time since 1916 a 
stop has been put to the annual loss in membership and a substantial gain recorded 
in its place. The total number of additions from December 31, 1919, to December 
6, 1920, was 266, while the total loss was 205, leaving anet gainof 61. In 1916 there 
was a net loss of 187, in 1917 of 85, in 1918 of 35, in 1919 of 74. It is, then, a matter 
for congratulation that the tide has definitely turned, and that a beginning has been 
made in the important work of repairing the losses attendant upon the war. It is to 
be hoped that another year will see more substantial progress and that soon the record 
total of 2,926 members attained in 1915 will be equaled or even surpassed. 


Respectfully yours, 
T. J. WERTENBAKER, Chairman. 


REPORT OF THE CONFERENCE OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 


The secretary of the conference of historical societies has been concerned during 
the past year with three lines of activity: (1) The preparation of a program for the 
meeting of the conference in connection with the annual meeting of the American 
Historical Association at Washington, D. C., in December, 1920; (2) the circularizing 
of the societies for the sake of obtaining funds and information; (3) the effort to 
make constructive plans for rhe future of the conference. 

A joint session with the National Association of War History Organizations was 
planned for 1920; and, cooperating with Dr. Albert E. McKinley, secretary of the 
latter association, a joint program was formed. Believing that the question of fed- 
eration of historical societies within the States is most vial to the interests both of 
the conference and its individual members, Dr. Joseph Schafer, of the Wisconsin 
State Historical Society, has been asked to read a paper on thissubject. Discussion 
will be participated in by Mr. Worthington ©. Ford, of the Massachusetts Histori- 
cal Society, Prof. Harlow Dindley, of Earlham College, Indiana, and Prof. Edmond 
S. Meany, of the University of Washington, thus representing three geographical 
sections of the country. 

In accordance with the annual custom of the conference, a circular letter and a 
questionnaire have been sent out, with the kind assistance of the general office of 
the American Historical Association. The letter includes an invitation to the 


86 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


societies to send delegates to the meeting at Washington (for which preliminary pro- 
grams have been enclosed) and also calls attention to the provision of the constitu- 
tion regarding the financial support of the conference through assessment upon the 
member societies. The questionnaire asks for the usual data upon the organization 
and activities of the individual societies. The secretary hopes to be able to report 
to the conference at its meeting on December 28 an encouraging response to this 
letter, both in financial returns and information. 

With regard to the future, the question of organization deserves first attention. The 
secretary believes the present constitution, drawn up in 1916, contains a satisfactory 
working plan for the conference. The actual financial support received is going to 
depend somewhat upon the evidence which the conference gives to the societies of 
its value to them. The value of its services likewise is going to depend much on 
the financial support received. The secretary has faith that the two factors can be 
made to stimulate each other rather than interfere with each other. 

He feels, however, that organization can be pushed one step further to advantage, 
although not through formal addition to the constitution. The four to five hundred 
societies scattered over this country and Canada have potentially much in common, 
but practically make few points of contact. The conference strives to give them a 
common focus, but close relationship is impossible especially with the smaller local 
societies. The secretary believes that for the good of the conference as a whole, and 
for the more vital functioning of the societies individually, there should be a bond 
organized between the societies within each Stateand Province. The conference need 
not eease dealing directly with the small society, but in many cases, for example in 
the preparation of bibliographical material or in making a survey ofany kind, the 
officers of a federation within a State could render invaluable service to the Confer- 
ence in an advisory capacity, and often in securing information or action from the 
smaller societies which the secretary of the conference might never obtain. Further- 
more, the historical interests of each State would profit greatly by such a federation. 
This principle is not a new one before the conference. It has been made the sub- 
ject of an earlier meeting, but itis, in the opinion of the secretary, of too great impor- 
tance to be neglected. It is with this in mind that Doctor Schaefer’s paper was 
arranged and it is hoped that the paper and its discussion may have definite results. 

Probably the most difficult problem of any historical organization is that of publi- 
cation. The secretary feels strongly that the proceedings of the annual meetings of 
the conference, together with the data collected from the societies, should be pub- 
lished in separate form and without delay. The publication of this material by the 
American Historical Association in its annual reports is greatly appreciated, but it is 
doubtful if the interest of the societies in sending in answers to the questionnaires 
can be sustained without earlier report both of the proceedings and data. This is the 
first publication duty of the conference and should have prior claim on the finances. 

Two other projects have been for some years before the conference—a handbook 
of information regarding the societies and a continuation of the Griffin Bibliography 
of American Historical Societies. Each is important and each is a somewhat formid- 
able undertaking. 

These two projects were broached in 1916 and efforts were made to procure data 
for their preparation; the Newberry Library agreeing to allow Mr. A. H. Shearer, 
then secretary of the conference, the time to devote to this work. But financial, 
military, and other circumstances prevented consummation of the plans year after year. 
In December, 1919, when the present secretary took office, there existed an unusu- 
ally large collection of data sent in by the societies in answer to questionnaires of 
1917 and 1918 and in anticipation of the publication of a handbook. Itseemed wise 
rather than hold this longer, to publish it in the report of the American Historical 
Association for 1917, and the retiring secretary kindly agreed to send the reprint of 
this report out to the societies explaining that this increased collection of statistics, 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 87 


covering over 400 societies, was the nearest approach possible to a handbook under 
the present conditions, and announcing the change of officers of the conference. 
» Owing to the delay in the appearance of the report this letter was not sent out, but 
the reprints have recently been mailed to the societies. 

It is the opinion of the secretary that a fresh start should be made in the direction 
of both handbook and the Griffin continuation. 

The secretary has received a letter from his predecessor in office to the effect that 
he is sending a collection of material relative to the conference with regard to these 
two and other projects. In this, he states, there is material collected by him 
from Iowa and Virginia toward the Griffin bibliography, and he has had promises 
from Minnesota, New York, and Illinois. Thus a start has been made. 

It seems, however, as if the wisest thing to do would be to ask the conference to 
name a carefully chosen committee of three to act with the secretary of the con- 
ference in planning the details of a handbook and in compiling and publishing it, 
and to name a similar committee to act with the secretary of the conference in com- 
piling a continuation of the Griffin bibliography. These committees should have 
working chairmen and the committees could each divide their work as was done in 
the preparation of the survey of the work of historical societies made in 1905 by a 
committee consisting of Messrs. Thwaites, Shambaugh, and Riley. 

The secretary of the conference could act as a coordinating agency between 
the two committees, could assist both committees, very materially in connection 
with sending out questionnaires and in the collection of data, and, as far as his 
other duties would permit, in every way possible. 

With regard to the financing of these publications, it must be said that the treasury 
of the conference justifies little outlay, and the returns from the societies are a 
matter of prophecy. The secretary believes that a sufficient amount will be received, 
together with the balance on hand, to get out the proceedings and annual data in 
separate form and take care of the circularizing of the societies at least once during 
the coming year. 

If the handbook and the continuation of Griffin’s bibliography are printed in the 
reports of the American Historical Association, the expense to the conference will not 
be great and can probably be handled by the receipts from the societies if they be- 
come assured of definite and satisfactory publication results. 

It is believed that more satisfactory returns will be secured if two circular letters 
are sent out annually, one in the early part of the year giving a general report of the 
December meeting, announcing the publication of the annual survey and other 
activities, and calling for the annual dues; and a second one in November announc- 
ing the December meeting and requesting information based on a questionnaire. 
In this way the request for dues will be associated with the objects for which finan- 
cial support is necessary, and will be freed from the complication of the return of 
questionnaire data. 

For the year 1921, in view of the fact that the certainty of adequate returns from 
the societies is not yet assured, it is requested that the American Historical Associa- 
tion again make an appropriation of $25 for the conference. 


FINANCIAL STATEMENT 


The secretary has received from his predecessor in office, Mr. Augustus-H. Shearer, 
$26.74, which sum remains on deposit in an account opened for the conference of 
historical societies. The conference was also granted in December, 1919, by the 
American Historical Association, an appropriation of $25. This sum has not been 
drawn, but expenses connected with the sending out of the circular letter and ques- 
tionnaire to the societies have been paid by the general office of the American His- 
torical Association as follows: 


88 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Duplication of letter and questionnaire (paper supplied by duplicating 


23. 15 


It is understood that these items have been charged against the appropriation of 
$25 on the books of the American Historical Association. The assistant secretary of 
the association states that an additional small bill for services in connection with 
the circular letter--probably about $5—was due but had not yet come in when the 
books were closed. This will be taken care of in 1921. 

Aside from the above there have been no disbursements. The call for dues was 
sent out in the circular letter of December 1, 1920, and as yet no returns have been 
received with the exception of the sum of $10 from the State Historical Society of 
Iowa. The actual amount in the treasuary of the conference is therefore the balance 
brought forward from 1919 plus the above item, or $36.74. 

Joun C. Parisu, Secretary. 


Report OF COMMITTEE ON NATIONAL ARCHIVES 


In the last session of Congress it was found impossible to persuade the House Com- 
mittee on Appropriations to make any appropriation for the national archive building. 
In the session now begun a more hopeful situation appears to exist, due mainly to the 
efforts of Mr. Moore, of this committee. There appears to be a disposition in Congress 
to institute a regular program of building operations in Washington, and in framing it 
to follow the recommendations of the building commission. That commission has 
given a foremost place to the national archive building in its suggestions as to a proper 
order for the erection of buildings, and Senator Smoot, in recent remarks in the Senate, 
speaking for that commission, declared strongly in favor of taking up the erection of 
that building first. 

Respectfully submitted. 

. J. F. Jameson, Chairman. 


REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MODERN ENGLISH History 


The committee on a bibliography of modern English history regrets that it is not 
in a position to make a definitive report. Shortly after the committee was reconsti- 
tuted at the last meeting of the ussociation, correspondence was begun with Mr. 
George W. Prothero, who had been appointed general editor and who had collected 
much material for the first volume just before the outbreak of the war. Mr. Prothero 
asked for a postponement of decision in plans until he had fulfilled some postwar 
responsibilities toward the British Government, which he thought would be by the 
autumn. With the completion of this work Mr. Prothero’s health suddenly failed, 
and he was ordered to enter upon an immediate and complete rest for six months. 
It was impossible for the American committee to decide upon a policy before Mr. 
Prothero left England, and the chairman’s last letter to him remains unanswered. 
Nothing has therefore been done to block out a course of action for the immediate 
future. 

It is evident, however, that something should be done to examine and arrange the 
materials Mr. Prothero has left in London and to prepare them for his resumption of 
work. The committee believes that a grant of $150 from the association for the 
coming year, if it can be made, will enable them to bring the materials now in 
existence into order ready for a resumption of active preparation for the publication 
of the first volume of the work. 

Respectfully submitted. 

E. P. Coryney, Chairman. 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 89 


Frnat REPorT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE History PRIzE 


It will be recalled that at the Charleston meeting, in 1913, it was announced that 
a friend had donated $250 to the association, to be awarded as a prize for the best 
essay in American military history, the details of the competition to be deter- 
mined by the association. The council appointed the following committee to prepare 
plans and conduct the contest: Capt. A. L. Conger, Army Service Schools, Fort 
Leavenworth, chairman; Milledge L. Bonham, jr. (then of Louisiana State Univer- 
sity, Baton Rouge); Allen R. Boyd, Library of Congress; Fred M. Fling, University 
of Nebraska; and Albert Bushnell Hart, Harvard University. 

A circular was prepared and distributed, announcing the contest for 1915. Five 
essays were submitted, none of which, in the opinion of the committee, was worthy 
of the award. Accordingly it was recommended to the association at the Washington 
meeting of 1915 that no award be made. This recommendation was adopted and the 
same committee was continued in the service to conduct another contest. 

In consequence of Captain Conger’s being ordered to join his regiment on the 
Mexican border in May, 1916, a vacancy was created, which was filled by the ap- 
pointment, by the council, of Prof. Robert M. Johnston, of Harvard, editor of the 
Military Historian and Economist, as chairman. 

Another circular was prepared, arranging for a contest in 1918. But in June, 
1918, Professor Johnston was appointed a major in the Historical Section of the Gen- 
eral Staff, United States Army, and sent to France. He resigned from the com- 
mittee and Mr. Bonham was appointed chairman, and the vacancy filled by the 
appointment of Prof. Frank M. Anderson, of Dartmouth College. 

As every member of the committee was engaged in war work of some sort, and the 
historical profession was not then primarily interested in previous military events, 
it was unanimously decided to postpone the contest until after the war. 

After the armistice was signed, the committee resumed its work, and upon the 
suggestion of Mr. Boyd wide publicity was given to the announcement of the con- 
test and an effort made to interest officers of the allied armies in this contest. A 
circular was distributed, fixing July 1, 1920, for the closing of the contest. At the 
Cleveland meeting of 1919, the committee met and decided upon plans for handling 
the essays. The chairman, meanwhile, had removed to Hamilton College. 

By July 1, 1920, eight essays were submitted, on subjects ranging from the colo- 
nial wars to the World War. Seven of the contestants were men, onea woman. Both 
the historical profession and the Army were represented, as well as the business 
world. 

From July 1 to December 15, 1920, the essays were being carefully considered by 
the members of the committee. After much correspondence, and at least one per- 
sonal conference between members, it was decided, after some hesitation, that in 
view of the fact that this was not a permanent competition, and because of the prob- 
ability of the fund being covered into the treasury if not awarded, that a decision 
had better be made. 

The committee awarded the prize to Mr. Thomas Robson Hay, of Pittsburgh, Pa., 
for his essay, ‘‘Hood’s Tennessee Campaign.’’ Mr. Hay was advised to make cer- 
tain revisions before publishing it. A sketch of Mr. Hay has already been sent to 
the secretary of the association. Honorable mention was accorded to the following 
essays: “The Texas Rangers in the Mexican War,’’ by Prof. Walter Prescott Webb, 
of the University of Texas; ‘‘What Happens in Battle,’”’ by Capt. John Nesmyth 
Greely, General Staff, United States Army. 

Notice of this decision was given to the council by Mr. Boyd during the Wash- 
ington meeting of 1920. The result has since been reported by the chairman to the 
contestants, and the essays are being returned to them. 


90 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


All of which is respectfully submitted by the committee, with the request that it 
be discharged. 

In conclusion, I desire to express my appreciation of the zeal and scholarly atti- 
tude of the other members of the committee, and to thank the council and other offi- 
cers of the association for their courteous and efficient cooperation with the committee. 

A statement of the expenses connected with this contest is enclosed. 

Respectfully submitted. 

L. Bonuam, Jr., Chairman. 


Expenditures of the members of the committee: 


Mr. Boyd: For dispatching the essays to Mr. Anderson............-.. ...--- . 83 
Mr. Hart: For dispatching the essays to Mr. Fling....................--..-. 1, 20 
Mr. Bonham: For correspondence as chairman, 1918-1921.............. $3. 75 

For dispatching essays to Mr. Boyd, July 2, 1920................- . 45 

For dispatching essays to Mr. Boyd, August 21................... . 35 

For return of essays from Mr. Fling, Jan. 12, 1921................. 1. 07 ntee 


Report OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE HISTORICAL CONGRESS AT RIO DE JANEIRO 


Although there has been no meeting of the committee in the course of the past 
year owing to the absence of some of its members from the United States, there has 
nevertheless been considerable headway made by correspondence. In the absence 
of Prof. Bernard Moses, the chairman of the committee, it was deemed advisable to 
designate Prof. P. A. Martin, of Stanford University, as actingchairman. The com- 
mittee has been in close touch with various officials of the Government who are 
interested in the proposed congress and have given valuable assistance in the prep- 
aration of our plans. We have been particularly indebted in this regard to. Dr. L. S. 
Rowe, Director General of the Pan American Union, Mr. Sumner Welles, acting chief 
of the Division of Latin American Affairs of the Department of State, and Ambassa- 
dor Edwin V. Morgan, who has been made a member of the committee and has taken 
an active part in its work thus far. 

I had the pleasure of a brief visit in Rio early in June and was then able to con- 
fer at length with the officials of the Instituto Historico which has charge of the 
arrangements. The plans for the congress have been laid out along rather broad 
lines to include geographic and economic as well as historical investigations. This 
has evidently been thought desirable in view of the interests of the Instituto in the 
fields mentioned. It may be noted incidentally that the library of that organization 
is unusually strong in the literature on explorations and discoveries; hence the desire 
to include geographic contributions. It is to be hoped, therefore, that the American 
delegation to the congress may have among its members one or two geographers, and 
your committee is endeavoring to facilitate such an arrangement. 

While the Instituto has thus far received acceptances from only six or seven na- 
tional historical associations of as many American republics, it has ample assur- 
ances that the attendance at the congress will be large and comprehensive. There 
are some 30 sections or sessions on the tentative program, one of which is devoted 
to the history of the United States. It is suggested, however, that so far as possible 
the papers submitted shall emphasize the relations between the United States and 
Brazil. 

Your committee is now considering the designation of delegates and the suggestion 
of topics for papers. It was originally hoped that some contribution toward the 
expenses of the delegation might be secured from the Government, and tentative 
representations were made along that line. It now seems unlikely, however, that 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 91 


such assistance will be forthcoming, and for that reason the delegates who will ac- 
tually make the trip to Rio in September, 1922, will probably be compelled to meet 
their expenses from their own resources or from those of institutions with which 
they are connected. 


Respectfully submitted. 
Junius Kiet, Secretary. 


REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON HISTORY AND EDUCATION FOR CITIZENSHIP IN THE 
ScHOOLS 


Your committee on history and education for citizenship in the schools, which 
reported progress at the meeting of the council in Cleveland on December 29, 1919, 
desires at this time to make a supplementary report covering the activities of the com- 
mittee since the Cleveland meeting. 

During the sessions of the American Historical Association at Cleveland your com- 
mittee held several meetings which resulted in the adoption of decisions concerning 
its future work, which decisions were published in the Historical Outlook for March, 
1920, volume 11, no. 3, pages 111-112. A summary of these decisions would be as 
follows: 


1, It was agreed that the committee should prepare, as Part I of its final report, 
recomendations for the four-year high-school course. 

2. Minimum requirements.—That these should include, as a minimum requirement 
for graduation on the part of all pupils taking a four-year course: 

(a) A course in modern world history (except America), beginning aproximately at 
the middle of the seventeenth century and extending to the present. 

(b) A course in American history, tveated topically, covering mainly the —" 
from 1789 to the present, with special emphasis on the period since the Civil War. 

This courre should be primarily political, but it should take full account of eco- 
nomic, industrial, and social factors which explain political movements. 

3. Allocation in grades.—That the above courses should be given, preferably, in 
grades 10 and 11, respectivly. 


4. Other social studies.—In addition to this minimum requirement, the committee 
recomends, as additional required courses, where practicable: 


(a) For the ninth grade a course in industrial organization and civice which shall 

include ‘‘the development of an appreciation of the social significance of all work 
of the social value and interdependence of all occupations, of the opportunities and 
necessity for good citizenship in vocational life, of the necessity for social control, 
governmental and otherwise, of the economic activities of the community, of how 
government aids the citizen in his vocational life and of how the young citizen may 
prepare himself for a definite occupation.’’ In this connection, we suggest the study 
of 10 great industries, as follows: The fisheries and fur trade; lumbering; meat, hides 
and wool; wheat; corn; cotton; iron and steel; coal; gold, silver and copper; and 
oil. 
(b) For the twelfth grade a course in the problems of American democracy. This 
should include some of the basic principles of economics, political science and soci- 
ology, stated in elementary terms, but should consist mainly of the study of concrete 
present-day problems illustrating these principles. 

The committee hopes to secure the cooperation of organizations of economists, 
political scientists, and sociologists in preparing syllabi for the above courses. 

5. Electives in history.—It is by no means the intention of the committee to sug- 
est a reduction in the time usually alloted to history in the high-school program. 
t is rather the intention, while retaining in full force and effect the list of history 

offerings in the high school, to increase the positive requirements in social studies 
for graduation as a guaranty of citizenship training. In addition, therefore, to the 
above required courses, the committee recommends the offering in the future as in 
the past of a variety of elective courses in history and the other social studies. It is 
o necessary that elective history courses should be taken in strictly chronological 
order, 


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92 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


The following are the courses suggested: 

(a) The ancient world to about 800 A.D. This course should be so placed in 
the program as not to interfere with the required courses outlined above. 

(b) A survey of ancient medieval history to approximately the middle of the 
seventeenth century. If convenient, this should be taken before the required course 
in modern world history of the tenth eer 

(c) The history of England and the British Empire. 

(d) A course involving an intensive study of local, State, or regional history, or 
of some particular period or movement in the history of the Americas. 

(e) A similar course involving an intensive study of some particular ery or 
movement in European history. This might well take the form of the study of the 
background and history of the Great War. 

(f) An intensive study of the recent history of the Far East. 


6. Syllabi.—For the proposed required courses the committee agreed to prepare 
syllabi containing list of topics, references for the use of the teacher, and reading 
list for the pupils. No such syllabi were contemplated for the suggested elective 
courses, the committee agreeing, however, to facilitate as far as possible the publi- 
cations and use of syllabi already in existence covering such courses. 

Other recommendations.—By reference to the detailed statement in the Historical 
Outlook as cited, it will be seen that the committee covered in its decisions at Cleve- 
land the question of the junior — school, the first eight grades, and insurance in 
civics. It was decided to defer the preparation of courses for the first eight grades 
and for the junior nigh school—apart from the work of the ninth grade, which is 
applicable both to the last year of the junior high school and the first year of the 
four-year high school—-to a later time, meantime setting out to prepare the syllabi 
covering the four years of the high school, to be published as Part I of the final 
report. 

On account of the preoccupation of the members of the committee with other press- 
ing work for which they were responsible, it became evident early in the summer 
of 1920 that it would be necessary to employ some assistance if the committee ex- 
pected to have its promised syllabi ready for final revision at the time of the Washing- 
ton meeting. In consultations held on the subject it was agreed to employ Miss 
Frances Morehouse, of the University of Minnesota, to work particularly upon the 
ninth grade course in civics and in industries and upon the eleventh grade course in 
American history. These are the two courses for which the chairman of the com- 
mittee made himself responsible, but which, after the assumption of his new duties as 
superintendent of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, it was impossible for 
him to work out unaided. The chairman therefore outlined the two courses briefly, 
indicating the plan which he understood the committee to have authorized in each 
case. These notes were placed in the hands of Miss Morehouse, and she, in consul- 
tation with the chairman, worked out the courses in detail. It was agreed, after 
conference with Mr. Leland, who was secretary and treasurer of the National Board 
for Historical Service, to pay to Miss Morehouse for her services the sum of $300 out 
of the funds which had been appropriated by the American Historical Association 
for the use of this committee. I respectfully suggest that the council make provi- 
sion for the payment to Miss Morehouse of the sum so stipulated. 

Of the other required courses, Mr. Knowlton, of our committee, made himself 
responsible for the tenth grade course in modern world history. My advices are that 
Mr. Knowlton will be prepared to present to the committee at Washington a syllabus 
covering his recommendations for that course. 

Mr. Knowlton has also been experimenting at the Lincoln School of Teachers Col- 
lege, Columbia University, with a civics course for ninth-grade pupils. He will prob- 
ably present a syllabus covering his conception of that course, which, in that case 
will be considered as an alternative to the course prepared by Miss Morehouse under 
the suggestions of the chairman of the committee. 

It has been the hope of our committee that some other committee, or some indi- 
vidual, would prepare a course suitable for the suggested social science work of the 
twelith grade. It is understood that Miss Morehouse and others at the University of 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 93 


Minnesota have been at work upon a course of that description, and there are reports, 
that others also have had such courses under preparation. It is possible, but not 
certain, that at the Washington meeting we shall be apprised of the existence of a 
course which may meet the approval of our committee so that it can be recommended 
for use in connection with the courses for which the committee holds itself directly 
responsible. 

The courses for the earlier grades and the junior high school.—The chairman has been 
creditably informed that Prof. Henry Johnson, on whom the committee has relied 
very largely in making its suggestions for the earlier years, has already prepared 
courses covering portions of the first eight years, and that the publication of these 
courses has been contracted for. More definite information, however, will doubt- 


less reach the committee during the Washington session. 
The proposed history investigation.—It has been suggested, in letters from the treas- 


urer of the association and from Mr. Leland, former secretary, that there is now a 
prospect of securing a considerable fund for the scientific investigation of history 
teaching. If the council or the association shall take steps to procure such a.fund, 
the question of the relation of the present committee to the proposed investigation 
will need to be settled, probably at the Washington meeting. The chairman has 
not conferred, except incidentally, with other members of our committee relative to 
thie subject. However, he is convinced that in case such a fund is secured and an 
investigation undertaken, it ought to be undertaken by a new committee, the mem- 
bers of which shall be so situated as to be able to devote a considerable portion of 
their time to the work, since under those circumstances they can be compensated 
for their time. Itis possible that some members of our committee might desire to 
be continued on the new basis. But certainly the majority are men who are fully 
occupied in work which precludes the employment of any considerable portion of 
their time in such an investigation, ard for these members others would have to be 
substituted. The most economical plan and the one which the chairman will rec- 
ommend to the committee will be to ask the American Historical Association to 
discharge the present committee on history and education for citizenship and to 
provide for the appointment of a new committee to be constituted as the association 
may determine. 

Conservation of the work which has been done.—With reference to the courses which 
have been prepared, in the form of syllabi, in so far as these may be approved by 
the committee for publication with a view to their introduction into the schools of 
the country, I hope the council may feel disposed to favor their publication for tem- 
porary use until such time as the new committee, if appointed, shall be prepared 
to substitute more scientifically prepared courses for them. Your committee has, 
in the past two years, devoted considerable time, thought, and energy to the prep- 
aration of these high-school courses, and it would seem uneconomical to allow all of 
this work to be dissipated, particularly at a time when high schools in mary parts 
of the United States are clamoring for leadership in the organization of their history 
and civics courses. 

Summary.—To summarize I should say: 

1. The committee hopes to agree upon at least three courses at the Washington 
meeting. 

2. These three courses will be the courses for the ninth, tenth, and eleventh years. 

3. In case of agreement, these three courses should be subjected to editorial prepara- 
tion for publication, and should be published. 

4. Such editorial preparation for publication might well be left to the new 
committee which it is presumed will be appointed by the American Historical Associa- 
tion to conduct a scientific investigation into the subject of history teaching. 

5. The present committee of eight should be discharged. 

JoserH ScHAFER, Chairman, 


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94 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Resolved, That the committtee ask the council for permission to publish its final 
report to embody: (1) A fairly definite outline of the reorganized program for the 12 
years as embodied in the June, 1919, issue of the Historical Outlook; (2) a straight- 
forward statement justifying the program; (3) syllabi of certain selected topics and 
courses embodied in the program which will be put forth not as final recommenda- 
tions but merely as suggestive of the detailed treatment that might be accorded to 


the various parts of the program. 
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON A MANUAL OF HisToRICAL LITERATURE. 


After considerable correspondence conducted with representatives of both the 
American Historical Association and of the American Library Association in 1919, 
the present committee was formally appointed at the Cleveland meeting in Decem- 
ber, 1919, to assume charge of the work. The American Library Association is rep- 
resented on this committee by Doctor Shearer, who is also a member, by appointment, 
for the American Historical Association. The American Library Association is ready 
to cooperate in any way desirable in the work, but is willing to leave the prosecu- 
tion of the enterprise in the hands of this committee of the American Historical 
Association. 

At the meeting in Cleveland the committee was able to hold several conferences 
and to plan the general organization of the work. They then held a conference of 
those persons present at the meeting whom they had been able to secure 
as chapter editors. Since then editors have been secured for all the proposed chap- 
ters except possibly two, which relate to fields in which few Americans have special- 
ized. Tentative lists of titles to be included have been prepared for all the proposed 
chapters, about 30in number. These lists have been carefully canvassed and criti- 
cized by the committee in two sessions, one held in New York in May and one in 
Middletown, Conn.,in November. The members of the committee have divided the 
chapters among themselves for special study and have been in correspondence with 
the chapter editors concerning their respective lists in the light of the committee 
criticisms and suggestions. 

The attached memoranda which have been sent to the chapter editors indicate in 
some detail the plans worked out by the committee. Unfortunately progress has, 
for many reasons, been much slower than we had hoped, but it is the purpose of the 
committee to prosecute the work with all possible diligence. The delay may not 
prove unfortunate if it shall permit publication under more advantageous conditions 
as regards costs. 

The committee purposes to meet in Washington and to utilize all possible time 
dur'ng the sessions of the American Historical Association. It has arranged with the 
program committee for a breakfast conference with the chapter editors and all others 
interested on Wednesday morning, December 29. 

The question of publication has been taken up with Mr. F. S. Crofts, representing 
Harper & Bros., who were the publishers of Dr. C. K. Adams’s Manual of Historical 
Literature, of which they still hold copyright. Mr. Crofts has assured the committee 
of the desire of Harper & Bros. to publish the proposed manual and to arrange the 
most favorable terms practicable. 

The work of the preparation of this manual involves a very large amount of corre- 
spondence and will necessarily require frequent meetings of the committee. The 
expenses of the members in attending the two meetings held in New York and Mid- 
dletown were as follows: 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 95 


Railroad | Pullman | Hotel | Meals 

Professor Fay: 

Professor Shipman: 

Doctor Shearer: 

Professor Dutcher: 

UNG 86. 21 11. 30 10. 00 12. 36 


In addition, there is due to Wesleyan University for— 


No exact account has been kept of the cost of these items, but the figures given are 
considerably inside the actual expenditures, and the amount was agreed upon with 
the Wesleyan authorities as satisfactory. 

These total costs, then, at a minimum figure, represent a considerable excess over 
the grant of $75 which, it is understood, was placed at the disposal of this committee 
for the current year, and which has not yet been drawn upon. Ultimately, these 
expenditures should be reimbursed from the profit on the publication, and appropri- 
ations for the committee at the present time should be considered merely as ad vances 
and not as absolute grants. If the work is to be carried forward during the coming 
year, the cost will be considerably greater than during the past year. 

The abolition of the former committee on bibliography of the association and the 
creation of the present committee on the Manual of Historical Literature has resulted 
in leaving at least one enterprise of a bibliographical character, prosecuted under 
the direction of the association, uncompleted, and provision should be made by the 
association for the appointment of a separate committee to take up this enterprise 
and carry it to completion. The task is the preparation of a bibliography of Amer- 
ican travel. The large mass of materials thus far accumulated is at present in the 
hands of Doctor Shearer. 


Respectfully submitted. 
M. DurtcHer, Chairman. 


MANUAL OF HISTORICAL LITERATURE 


C. K. Adams’s Manual.—At the suggestion of the American Library Association, the 
American Historical Association has appointed a committee to replace the Manual of 
Historical Literature prepared by Charles Kendall Adams and published in 1882 by 
Harpers (third edition in 1888). The work of Adams was divided into 13 chapters, 
besides the introduction, and —— criticisms varying in length from 100 to 300 
words on about 970 titles. In addition, there were appended to each chapter a few 

ages of suggestions to students and readers, in which courses of reading were out- 
fined with a considerable number of additional titles mentioned, sometimes with a 
few words of comment, 


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96 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Purpose of the new manual.—The public to which this book will be addressed will 
include primarily public libraries and high schools and academies with their 
teachers of history. The book is to be prepared by experts in a thoroughly scholarly 
manner, but intended for distinctly popular use. The selection of titles and the 
character of the comments will, in considerable measure, be determined by the 
nature of the public addressed. The volume will also have its value for the scholar 
who wishes guidance in fields other than his own. 

As the volume will serve for guidance to public libraries in their purchase of works 
in history, an arrangement will be made to suggest selected lists for libraries adapted 
to their size and resources. Assuming that the large libraries will have or purchase 
nearly all the works reviewed, about 40 to 50 per cent of the titles will be marked 
by an asterisk as desirable for libraries of moderate size, and about 20 to 25 per cent 
of the titles will be marked by a double asterisk as desirable for the smaller libraries. 

Content of new manuals.—Owing to the lapse of time since the final edition of 
Adams’s work it is practically necessary to abandon his list of titles and to prepare 
an entirely new list. Further, the events of the past half century and the expan- 
sion of historical activities have made necessary chapters on numerous topics 
not included by Adams. The committee proposes a list of 26 chapters dealing 
with from 25 to 100 titles each, in accordance with the importance of the subject 
concerned, giving a total of about 1,300 titles. In large measure, the selection will 
be made from works now on the market or qeenyd available. These titles are to 
be entirely of publications in English which have appeared within the last 50 years 
(1870-1920, inclusive) or have appeared in English translation or in a new edition 
within that period. To these there will be devoted comments varying from 100 
to 300 words with a preference for the shorter comments, the longer comments being 
usually reserved for those books whose contents require some detailed outline 
because the title is not sufficiently indicative thereof. 

Each chapter will usually include, in addition to this major list, a list of a few 
titles of standard English works which have not been reprinted within the last 50 
years and also of outstanding works in French and German. To titles in these 
classes comments of from 20 to 50 words will be appended. In the case of a few 
chapters relating to specific countries which are represented in the American popu- 
lation by a considerable body of immigrants, a few titles of books in the language of 
the country will be added with similar brief comments. 

To each chapter there will be added a somewhat brief section of suggestions to 
students and readers, which shall refer primarily to the titles included in the chap- 
ters rather than being devoted to outlining detailed courses of reading or citing addi- 
tional titles. The tentative list of chapters, chapter editors, and apportionment of 
titles is included herewith. 

Method of preparation.—Each chapter will be assigned to an expert in the field 
concerned, who will act as chapter editor. He will assume bee! responsibility 
for selecting the titles which will be submitted to a selected list of librarians and 
other scholars in the field, for criticism, and additional suggestions, on the basis of 
which the chapter editor will prepare his final list. The chapter editor will then 
distribute the titles of works in his chapter among a considerable group of other 
scholars to prepare the comments, which will be revised and harmonized by the chap- 
ter editor. The chapter editor will also be expected to prepare the section on sug- 
gestions to readers and students. The arrangement of titles under each chapter 
should probably be by a partially chronological order under subheadings, the French 
and German and older English works being interspersed in their proper order among 
the English of recent date to which the major comments are given. 

The work as a whole will be under the direction of a committee of the American 
Historical Association, which will pass finally upon the lists to be included in the 
several chapters and will edit the work asa whole. It is desired that the chapter 
editors submit to the committee their preliminary list not later than February 15 
1920, so that the list may be circulated for criticism and suggestions and then revised 
by the chapter editor in time for consideration and revision by the committee at a 
meeting to be held about March 10, 1920, in order that they may approve the list 
and adjust any overlapping. The chapter editors are requested to furnish the com- 
mittee, prior to that date, a list of scholars who may be asked to prepare the criticisms 
of some of the works included in their respective chapters. It is desired that the 
criticisms of the volumes shall all be in the hands of the chapter editors as early 
in the summer as practicable, certainly not later than July 15, so that the chapter 
editors may complete their work and submit it to the committee not later than 
September 1. The committee may thus be able to arrange for the completion of the 
editorial work beiore the close of the calendar year. 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 97 


Geography.—A very few titles of works of a geographical and descriptive sort should 
be included in each chapter. These should be general in scope rather than related 
to a special section or topic. Perhaps these titles would best be incorporated in the 
suggestions to the reader. 

ibliography.—Each chapter shall include, perhaps in the suggestions to the 
reader, reference to the most important general bibliographies relating to its subject. 
In connection with each title mention will be made of special critical bibliographies, 
if they are contained in the work. The Library of Congress card number will be 
printed following each title, which shall be given in the form used on the Library 
of Congress cards. 

Articles in periodicals.—As public libraries usually have only a imited number of 
sets of periodicals, and as the size of the work must be limited, articles in periodicals 
will not normally be included in the list of titles, save in exceptional cases where 
there is an important article in a generally accessible periodical covering a subject 
not adequately handled in an available book. The suggestions to readers and stu- 
dents will sometimes include references to periodicals and periodical articles. Book 
reviews of unusual value will occasionally be mentioned in connection with the titles 
to which they relate, but this practice must necessarily be limited by the small 
number of files of reviewing periodicals in public libraries. 

Compensation.—There are no funds available to compensate anyone for any work 
in preparing this volume, except that the American Historical Association has placed 
$75 at the disposal of the committee to cover necessary traveling expenses to commit- 
tee meetings and to cover postage, multigraphing, etc. On the other hand, the vol- 
ume ought to yield a considerable royalty, and it is suggested that the royalty be 
paid in such proportions as may be agreed on, to the American Library Association 
(which it is hoped will forego any claim), and to the American Historical Associa- 
tion. It is suggested that such money as shall thus come to the American Historical 
Association shall become a permanent fund known as the Charles Kendall Adams 
fund for historical bibliography, whose income shall be used alone for the promotion 
of the preparation and publication of works of historical bibliograghy. 

The committee will welcome criticisms and suggestions on any matter connected 
with the work and the details of the plan. Thecommittee also solicits the judgment 
of the chapter editors on the following problems: 

I. Shall the comments be signed with the initials or names of the writers? In 
my judgment the initials should be used and the names of the coworkers in each 
chapter should follow that of the chapter editor at the head of the chapter, it being 
understood that the chapter editor shall feel free to suggest modifications of com- 
ments to the original writer where he regards the nature of the comments as dis- 
tinctly contrary to his own views or as essentially incorrect. Itshould be understood 
that the real responsibility for the criticism will rest upon the person whose initials 
are appended thereto, while the chapter editor assumes responsibility for the general 
character of the chapter, particularly with reference to the selection of titles and 
the suggestions to the student and reader. Another possibility is to include the list 
of names of coworkers at the head of the chapter as I have indicated and to leave 
all the comments unsigned. This would leave a sort of distributed responsibility 
and would perhaps leave the chapter editor a certain amount of discretion and free- 
dom in revising the comments of any particular writer on any particular title. In 
this case the chapter editor would clearly assume a larger responsibility for the 
character of the comments on all titles in his chapter. This question is obviously 
of considerable importance. 

II. Ought there to be a chapter of introduction more or less similar to that of 
Adams’s, perhaps reprinting sections of that chapter, or should an introduction .of 
anentirely different character be prepared? If there is to be an introduction, who 
should be asked to write it? 

GEORGE M. DurcHer, Chairman, 
Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. 
Sipney B. Fay, 
Smith College, Northampton, Mass. 
Avueustus H. SHEARER, 
Grosvener Library, Buffalo, N. Y. 
Henry R. SHIPMAN, 
Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. 
Committee of the American Historical Association, 


97244°—25——7 


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98 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


GENERAL SCHEME OF CHAPTERS 


About 1,300 titles (Adams had 970) plus ‘‘suggested titles’’ and cross references. 


Chapter Editor Titles 
History and auxiliary sciences..................--| G. L. Burr............. 50 

Modern—1500 to 1870 Lingelbach ........ 
....| F. M. Anderson........ 80 
Colonial expansion of Europe to 1815..............| W. C. Abbott .......... 40 
50 
100 


To the Chapter Editors: 

At a meeting of the committee held recently in Middletown it was decided, in 
order to advance the work, to apportion the Min Hom among the four members of 
the committee for special study and for correspondence with the chapter editors and 
others as might be desirable, particularily in the next few weeks. 

It was decided to arrange for a breakfast conference at the American Historical 
Association meeting in Washington, at 8 a.m., December 29, in the New Ebbitt 
House. It is hoped that the chapter editors will, as far as possible, plan to attend 
this conference. 

In the study of the lists of titles submitted for the several chapters it has been 
found necessary to adhere rigidly to the policy of assigning each book to only one 
chapter and that the chapter to which it most clearly and logically heboaged It 
was, however, decided that some system of cross reference should later on be arranged. 

With regard to the arrangement of titles within the chapters the following policy 
was approved: (1) Bibliography. (2) Geography and ethnography. (3) General 
books. (4) Books on periods. (5) Books on special topics. 

Under these several headings briefs of books or outlines should be placed first and 
the major works last. In other cases where this policy does not serve, a chronologi- 
cal arrangement should be followed, as in the subdivision on periods. 

Books published prior to 1870 and books in foreign languages should be incorpo- 
rated at their proper place in the main lists. Their number, however, should be 
kept as low as reasonably possible, and it is to be understood that any notations on 
these titles shall usually be kept under 50 words. It is probable that these titles 
= - will be printed in a smaller type than the titles in the main Eng- 

ish list. 

Where two or more books by the same author are cited in the same chapter they 
should be treated as one number and given a review together unless such procedure 
should be quite incongruous. This practice will save space and permit the inser- 
tion of a larger number of titles. 

In case brief outlines or textbooks are listed, it will be wise, as a rule, to select 
the one preferred for chief mention and review and then to give just passing men- 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 99 


tion under the first title to so many additional titles as might be desirable. Thus 
in English history, after citing as the main title Cross, reference could be made in 
the briefest fashion to Tout, Cheyney, Wrong, Gardiner, etc. 

In order that the list of reviewers may be completed and approved by the com- 
mittee at the meeting in Washington, will you please, at your earliest convenience, 
send in a list of names of persons you would suggest to cooperate with us in 
reviewing books in your chapter? If you know of persons whom you would espe- 
cially recommend to assist in any other chapters, such suggestions will also be ap- 
preciated by the committee. 


NovEMBER 23, 1920. 


REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON A PRIMER OF ARCHIVES 


Mr. Leland and I have found it impossible, notwithstanding our best intentions 
and correspondence, to meet together during the year for the purpose of working 
out an apportionment of the primer, and we are able to report at this time that we 
shall hope to be able to do better next year, if no unexpected illness or other mis- 
haps interpose themselves. Personally, I have given so much time as chairman of 
the nominating committee this year that I could give no more to the committee en 
the primer. 


Respectfully submitted. 
Vicror H. Paursits, Chairman. 


ReEporT OF ComMmITTEE ON NOMINATIONS 


Article VII of the constitution provides that: ‘‘ This constitution may be amended 
at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been given at the previous 
annual meeting or the proposed amendment having received the approval of the executive 
council.’’ A majority of the members of the present nominating committee, namely, 
Miss Ellery, and Messrs. Fish, Hamilton, and Paltsits, strongly recommend to the 
executive council approval before the forthcoming annual meeting of the association 
of an amendment of Article II of the by-laws, as marked on the exhibit herewith; 
that is, to change error in the second word, so as to read ‘‘nominating’’ for ‘‘nom- 
ination’’; to omit the words in brackets, namely, the referendum feature beginning with 
‘‘at such convenient time ’’ and ending with ‘‘then to be chosen’’; and allowing two 
days instead of only one before the annual business meeting for the printing of 
additional nominations as provided otherwise by the by-law in question. 

Mr. Hodder seemed disinclined to join the rest of us in our strong appeal for the 
elimination of the unworkable and costly referendum, which does not at all bring 
about the results it was supposed would come fromit. It has proven itself a fiasco. 
I have elaborate data, which I am ready to submit to the executive council on behalf 
of the nominating committee, as information concerning the absurdities of the whole 
matter. Mr. Hodder found himself hampered by university work at the time when 
my elaborate analysis was sent to him, as well as to the rest of the committee mem- 
bers. His reply to me as chairman came only after a second request, and I judged 
from what he wrote that he had not read the entire docket carefully. I have since 
asked him to submit a minority report. He has not done so; therefore I am not 
able to know whether he still holds his former judgment or whether a careful reading 
of the docket has convinced him, asit has the rest of us, that an immediate abroga- 
tion of the useless referendum feature is for the best interests of the American His- 
torieal Association and its members. The letters from Professors Ellery, Fish, and 
Hafhilton, giving expression of their wishes through me as chairman, are on file and 
are the command of the executive council, together with everything else that the 
executive council may wish from the nominating committee as to the duties performed 
by the said committee in carrying out its trust. 


Respectfully submitted. 
Victor H. Paursits, Chairmais. 


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100 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Frnat Report OF THE CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE LONDON HeEap- 
QUARTERS OF THE ASSOCIATION 


Upon recommendation of the committee, it was voted by the executive council 
on December 27, 1919, that notice should be given of the termination of the agree- 
ment of our association with the Royal Historical Society whereby our association 
has possessed a room in the building of the Royal Historical Society as a subtenant 
under that organization; that the treasurer of our association should make such pay- 
ments to the Royal Historical Society as would be required to meet our legal obligations; 
that the furniture of the room should be disposed of by giving to the American Uni- 
versity Union whatever articles it could use and by selling the rest; that the books 
should be given to the library of the American University Union; and that messages of 
thanks should be sent to those who have acted as officers of our London Branch. 

These votes were immediately acted upon by the chairman of the committee. 
On January 2, 1920, Mr. H. P. Biggar, honorary treasurer of the London branch, was 
notified of theaction of thecouncil. After consultation with the officers of the Royal 
Historical Society termination of the lease was effected on the next quarter day, 
March 25. The booksand all thefurniture, excepting the carpets and the fire imple- 
ments, were turned over in January to the American University Union. Later, Mr. 
Biggar reported that the Royal Historical Society had bought the fixtures remain- 
ing in the rooms. On July 16 Mr. Biggar was instructed to buy from the Macmillan 
Co. in London copies of any numbers of the American Historical Review which 
were lacking from the set kept in the library of the Royal Historical Society and to 
hold for the present whatever balance of the funds of the association remained in his 
hands. 

His final report, filed herewith, indicates a balance remaining in his hands on 
October 31, 1920, of £4 12s. This sum was paid into the treasury of the association 
on December 22, being reckoned at $16.27. The directions of the council have now 
been all carried out and the history of the London branch may be regarded as ended. 
The committee would wish to be discharged. 


Respectfully submitted for the committee. 
J. F. Jameson, Chairman. 


MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE EXECTIVE COUNCIL HELD AT 
1140 WOODWARD BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C., DECEMBER 27, 
1920 
The council met at 10.30a. m. Present: President Channing, presiding; Messrs. 

Bourne, Burr, Haskins, Jameson, Jusserand, Lingelbach, McMaster, Moore, Miss Put- 

nam, and the secretary. There also attended Mr. Allen R. Boyd, editor; Miss P. W. 

Washington, assistant secretary-treasurer; Mr. H. B. Learned, chairman of the com- 

mittee on publicatons; and Mr. Joseph Schafer, chairman of the committee on 

history and education for citizenship in the schools. 

The secretary presented his report, which showed a total membership of 2,524, as 
against 2,445 a year ago. The number whose dues were paid on December 15, 1920, 
was reported as 2,074, as against 2,032 on December 18,1919. The net gain in 
membership was 79, this being the first year since 1915 in which the membership 
has shown a net gain. 

The secretary reported that the will of the late James Schouler, of Intervale, N.H., 
former president of the association contained a bequest to the association in the 


following terms: 


To the American Historical Association I give and bequeath the framed oil por- 
trait of myself (a replica by Corner) which now hangs in the parlor of my house at 
Intervale; the same to be used, loaned, given away, or sold, at the discretion of the 


council of said association. 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 101 


The council voted to authorize the secretary to lend the portrait of Mr. Schouler 
to the United States National Museum. 

The secretary reported that the will of the late George Louis Beer contained a 
bequest to the association in the following terms: 

I give, devise, and bequeath to the American Historical Association of Wash- 
ington, D. C., a corporation duly incorporated and existing by act of Congress, Jan- 
uary 4, 1889, the sum of five thousand dollars ($5,000.00), to be held by said cor- 
poration as a special fund in trust for the following purposes only: The said sum 
of $5,000.00 is to be invested by the officials of the said American Historical Asso- 
ciation and the net income thereof is to be paid annually toa citizen of the United 
States who submits “ the best work upon any phase of European international history 
since the year 1895’’; the award to be made each year and the judges to be selected 
in accordance with the rules and regulations adopted by the said American Histor- 
ical Association. 

The council voted to authorize the creation of a prize to be awarded in accordance 
with the terms of Mr. Beer’s bequest and to be known as the ‘‘ George L. Beer 
prize.” 

The council voted to appoint a special committee to prepare rules for the award 
of the George L. Beer prize. 

It was voted to instruct the secretary to secure the preparation of memorials of 
the late James Schouler and George L. Beer to be spread upon the records of the 
association. 

The special committee, consisting of the president, secretary, and treasurer, which 
had been authorized to investigate the activities of certain so-called historical societies 
and to take the appropriate legal action as might be deemed advisable, reported that, 
while the activities of these. societies were clearly shown to be of a commercial char- 
acter, of no historical value, and in some instances of doubtful legality, it was, in the 
opinion of the committee, inex pedient for the association to initiate legal action against 
the organizations. It was voted to accept the committee’s report and to discharge 
the committee. The secretary reported that the Peoples of America Society had 
requested the association to appoint two representatives to cooperate with that society 
for the study of racial elements in the United States. 

The council voted that the delegates be appointed. 

Upon motion by the secretary it was voted to appoint a committee on the writing 
of history for the purpose of studying the general question of history writing and of 
reporting on the appropriate means to be adopted for its stimulation and improve- 
ment. 

Mr. Jameson reported for the committee on London headquarters that, in accord- 
ance with the vote of the council on December 27, 1919, the rooms occupied by the 
association in London had been vacated and an unexpended balance of $16.27 had 
been turned into the treasury. 

It was voted to discharge the committee. 

The report of the board of editors of the American Historical Review was presented 
by the secretary. 

It was voted to accept it. 

The secretary reported that no report had been received from the board of editors 
of the Historical Outlook. 

The secretary presented the report of the Historical Manuscripts Commission. 


It was voted to accept it. 

The secretary reported that the committee on the Justin Winsor prize reported its 
inability to agree upon the award. It was voted that the essays of Messrs. Cunning- 
han, Benns, and Wood be submitted to the Justin Winsor prize committee for 1921 
with the request that the committee make the award as early as possible. 

Mr. Learned reported for the committee on publications. It was voted to give the 
committee full power to dispose of the stock of prize essays and to make arrangements 


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102 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


for the publication of Mr. Nussbaum’s essay on ‘‘G. J. A. Ducher: An Essay on 
Commercial Policy in the French Revolution, ’’ to which was awarded the Adamg 
prize of 1917. 

Mr. Leland appeared before the council to report for the committee on the dispo- 
sition of the records of the association. It was voted to authorize the committee to 
destroy such records of purely routine character as were in its judgment possessed 
of no value to the association and to deposit with the Library of Congress such records 
as were selected for preservation and should be deemed of nofurther use in the trans- 
action of the business of the association. 

The secretary presented the report from the committee on the historical congress 
at Itio de Janeiro, which it was voted to accept. 

A statement from the committee on the military history prize was presented to 
the effect that eight essays had been submitted but that the award had not yet been 
made. It was voted to give the committee an extension of time and to instruct it to 
report its award to the secretary as soon as it should be made. 

The report of the treasurer was read and accepted. 

The report of the committee on history and education for citizenship in the schools, 
together with its request to be discharged, was presented by the secretary. After 
discussion it was voted to defer action in the matter and to request Mr. Bourne to 
attend the conference of the committee on December 29 and to report to the council 
such recommendations as may seem to him appropriate. 

The council adjourned to meet at 2 p. m. 


AFTERNOON SESSION 


The council met at 2 p. m. Present: President Channing, presiding; Messrs. 
Bolton, Bourne, Burr, Haskins, Jameson, Lingelbach, Moore, Miss Putnam, and the 
secretary. There also attended Mr. Allen R. Boyd, editor; Miss P. W. Washington, 
assistant secretary-treasurer; Mr. George M. Dutcher, chairman of the committee on 
a manual of historical literature; and Mr. T. J. Wertenbaker, chairman of the com- 
mittee on membership. 

It was voted to recommend to the association that the next meeting be held at St. 
Louis in acceptance of invitations extended by Washington university, the Governor 
of Missouri, and the mayor of St. Louis. 

The report of the committee on membership was presented by its chairman, Mr. 
Wertenbaker. It was voted to accept the report and to authorize the chairman to 
enlarge the committee by appointing associate members. 

The report of the committee on a bibliography of modern English history was pre- 
sented by the secretary. It was voted to accept the report and to refer the commit- 
tee’s request for an appropiation of $150 for 1921 to the committee on finance. 

The report of the committee on a manual of historical literature was read by the 
secretary. It was voted to accept the report, except for the proposal that the major 
list should be composed exclusively of books printed in English, and to refer the 
matter of an appropriation for the committee to the committee on finance. 

The secretary presented the report of the chairman of the conference of historical 
societies. The report was accepted. 

The council then proceeded to consider the report of the committee on policy as 
presented by its chairman, Mr. C. H. Haskins. The report was read in full and was 
then considered section by section, action being taken as follows: 

Section 21.—It was voted that, ‘‘ pending the consideration of an amendment of 
the constitution raising the annual fees from $3 to $5, members are invited to make 
special contributions of from $2 to $5 in addition to the present dues.’’ 

Section 1.—It was voted that of the program committee three members shall serve 
three-year terms, so arranged that one member retires each year, the other members 
to have one-year terms and be selected with reference to locality. 


i 
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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 103 


Section 2.—It was voted that scholarly summaries or abstracts of all papers read 
at the meetings and not printed in the Review shall appear in the “a reports of 
the association. 

Section 3.—It was voted to approve the recommendations of the committee on pol- 
icy respecting the historical manuscripts commission. 

Section 4.—It was voted to continue the public archives commission and to charge 
it with the preparation of the primer of eochd ve economy, now assigned to a special 
committee. 

rai 5.—It was voted to continue the present standing committee on the national 
archives. 

a 6.—It was voted to establish a committee on securing transcripts in foreign 
archives. 

Section 7.—It was voted to reestablish a committee on the documentary historical 
publications of the United States Government. 

Section 8.—It was voted to continue the standing committee on bibliography, to 
charge it with completing and publishing the bibliography of American travel, with 
continuing, in cooperation with the American Library Association, the compilation 
of the Manual of Historical Literature, and with the consideration of the other bibli- 
ographical projects (except the bibliography of modern English history ) enumerated 
in section 8 of the report of the committee on policy. 

Section 9.—It was voted to request the editor to report on some dependable means 
for et ie on the publication of Writings on American History without incurring 
a deficit. It was the opinion of the council that Writings should be published in the 
annual report until it can be brought out separately. 

Section 10.—It was voted to comply with the request of the present committee on 
history and education for citizenship in the schools for the discharge of the said com- 
mittee, and that the president, the two vice presidents, and the secretary be empow- 
ered to appoint a committee on history teaching in the schools. 

Section 12.—It was voted to reconstitute a committee on hereditary patriotic 
societies. 

Section 18.—It was voted to appoint a standing committee on military histor 
whose chief function should be to advise and cooperate with the Historical Branc 
of the General Staff and with other governmental agencies, national and State, which 
are engaged in preparing histories of the war. 


The council adjourned at 5.30 p. m. to meet at the New Willard Hotel on Decem- 
ber 28 at 9a. m. 


MINUTES OF MEETING OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL HELD AT THE 
NEW WILLARD HOTEL, WASHINGTON, D. C., ON DECEMBER 28, 
1920 


The council met at 9 a. m. Present: President Channing, presiding; Messrs. 
Bolton, Bourne, Burr, Haskins, Jameson, Lingelbach, Moore, Miss Putnam, and the 
secretary. There also attended Mr. Allen R. Boyd, editor, and Miss P. W. Wash- 


ington, assistant secretary-treasurer. 
The council continued its consideration of the report of the committee on policy. 


Section 15.—It was voted that the proposal for establishing a series of historical 
studies be approved in principle and that the matter be referred for further report 
to the committee (D. ri Munro, chairman) which was appointed by the informal 
conference on the establishment of a journal of European history held at Cincin- 
nati during the annual meetings of the American Historical Association in De- 
cember, 1916. 

Section 16.—It was voted to approve the recommendation of the committee respect- 
ing the Robert M. Johnston prize and the George Louis Beer prize. 

Section 17.—It was voted to authorize the payment from the treasury of the 
association of traveling expenses of the association’s delegates to the meetings of 
the American Council of Learned Societies. 

Section 18.—It was voted to approve the plan for a university center for higher 
studies in Washington and to appoint representatives to confer with the representa- 
tives of other organizations interested in the enterprise. 


| 
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104 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Section 19.—It was voted to change the name of the committee on docket to com- 
mittee on agenda, and that the two vice presidents, the secretary, and the treasurer 
should be ex officio members of the committee. It was voted to authorize the pay- 
ment from the treasury of the association of the traveling expenses incurred by the 
members of the committee on agenda in attending one meeting of the committee 
each year. 

Section 20.—It was voted to establish a standing committee on service. 

It was voted to adopt the report of the committee on policy as a whole, subject to 
the changes involved in the votes of the council relating thereto and to present it to 
the association with the recommendation that it be adopted. 

The council then proceeded to consider the recommendations of the committee 
on appointments with respect to committee assignments. It was voted to make the 


following appointments: 
STANDING COMMITTEES 
(Names of new members are printed in italics 


Committee on program for the thirty-sixth annual meeting.—Evarts B. Greene, chairman 
(appointed for one year); Charles Seymour (appointed for two years), Walter L. Fleming 
(appointed for three years), Thomas M. Marshall, Norman M. Trenholme; and ex 
officiis, N. A. Olsen, secretary of the Agricultural History Society, John C. Parish, 
secretary of the conference of historical societies. 

Historical manuscripts commission.—Justin H. Smith, chairman; Annie H. Abel, 
Eugene ©. Barker, Robert P. Brooks, Logan Esarey, Gaillard Hunt. 

Committee on the Justin Winsor prize.—Clive Day, chairman; Isaac J. Cox, Thomas 
F. Moran, Bernard C. Steiner, William W. Sweet. 

Committee on the Herbert Baxter Adams prize.—Conyers Read, chairman; Charleg 
H. MclIlwain, David S. Muzzey, Nellie Neilson, Bernadotte E. Schmitt, Wilbur H. 
Siebert. 

Committee on publications.—H. Barrett Learned, chairman; and, ex officiis, John 
S. Bassett, Allen R. Boyd, J. Franklin Jameson, Justin H. Smith, R. H. True. 

Committee on membership.—Thomas J. Wertenbaker, chairman; Louise Fargo Brown, 
Eugene H. Byrne, A. C. Krey, Frank E. Melvin, Richard A. Newhall, Charles W. 
Ramsdell, Arthur P. Scott, J. J. Van Nostrand, jr., James E. Winston, George F. 
Zook. 

Conference of historical societies.—John C. Parish, secretary (chairman to be elected 
by the conference). 

Committee on national archives.—J. Franklin Jameson, chairman; Charles Moore, 
Col. Oliver L. Spaulding, jr. 

Committee on bibliography.—George M. Dutcher, chairman; Sidney B. Fay, Augus- 
tus H. Shearer, Henry R. Shipman, (it was voted to authorize the chairman in con- 
sultation with the secretary of the association to appoint additional members). 

Public archives commission.—Victor H. Paltsits, chairman; Solon J. Buck, R. D. 
W. Connor, Waldo G. Leland, Arnold J. F. van Laer. 

Committee on obtaining transcripts from foreign archives.—J. Franklin Jameson, 
chairman; Charles M. Andrews, Waldo G. Leland. 

Committee on military history.—Brig. Gen. Eben Swift, chairman; Allen R. Boyd, 
R. B. House, Capt. Eben Putnam, Col. Oliver L. Spaulding, jr. 

Committee on hereditary patriotic societies.—( It was voted that this committee should 
be appointed by a special committee consisting of the secretary, the treasurer, and 
Mr. Leland.) 

Committee on service.—J. Franklin Jameson, chairman. (It was agreed that the other 
members of the committee should be appointed by the secretary of the association 
and the chairman of the committee in consultation.) 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 105 


SPECIAL COMMITTEES 


Committee on bibliography of modern English history.—Edward P. Cheyney, chair- 
man; Arthur L. Cross, Roger B. Merriman, Wallace Notestein, Conyers Read. 

Committee on the historical congress at Rio de Janeiro.—Bernard Moses, honorary 
chairman; Percy A. Martin, acting chairman; Julius Klein, secretary; Charles Lyon 
Chandler, Charles H. Cunningham, Constantine E. McGuire, Ambassador Edwin V. 
Morgan, Manoel de Oliveira Lima, W. L. Schurz. 

Committee on the documentary historical publications of the United States Govern- 
ment.—J. Franklin Jameson, chairman; Henry Cabot Lodge, Charles Moore. (It was 
voted to authorize the committee to add to its numbers.) 

Committee to formulate rules for the George L. Beer prize.—William A. Dunning, 
chairman; Marshall S. Brown, Edwin 8. Corwin. 

Committee on the writing of history.— Ambassador Jean Jules Jusserand, chairman; 
Wilbur C. Abbott, Charles W. Colby. 

Upon nomination by the committee on appointments the council elected Mr. 
G. 8. Ford a member of the board of editors of the American Historical Review 
for the full term of six years ending in December, 1926. 

Upon nomination by the committee on appointments the following were elected 
a board of editors of the Historical Outlook to advise with the managing editor: 
Edgar Dawson, Laurence M. Larson, William L. Westermann, Sarah A. Dynes, and 
Daniel C. Knowlton. 

The council adjourned to meet at 1140 Woodward Building on December 29 at 
9.30 a. m. 


MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL HELD 
AT 1140 WOODWARD BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C., ON DECEM- 
BER 29, 1920. 


The council met at 9.30 a.m. Present: President Channing, presiding; Messrs. 
Bolton, Burr, Haskins, Jameson, Lingelbach, Moore, Miss Putnam, and the secre- 
tary. There also attended Mr. Allen R. Boyd, editor, and Miss P. W. Washington, 
assistant secretary-treasurer. 

Mr. Dana C. Munro and Mr. Waldo G. Leland were appointed a committee to 
confer with representatives of other associations on the organization of a university 
center for higher studies in Washington. 

Mr. Allen R. Boyd reported that the committee on the military history prize had 
awarded the Robert M. Johnston prize to Mr. Thomas Robson Hay for his essay, 
“Hood’s Tennessee campaign,’’ with honorable mention to Mr. W. P. Webb for his 
essay ‘‘The Texas Rangers in the Mexican War,’’ and to Maj. J. N. Greely for his 
essay, ‘‘ What happens in battle.” 

The treasurer presented the report of the finance committee on the budget for 
1921. It was voted to accept the report and to approve for adoption by the associ- 
ation the following budget: 


APPROPRIATIONS 
Secre $3, 000 
Conference of historical sociotios 25 


106 ' AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


American Council of Learned Societies... 150 
Committee on the writing of history 75 

ESTIMATED INCOME 


The committee on history and education for citizenship in the schools submitted, 
in addition to the report previously presented, the following resolution: 


Resolved, That the committee ask the council for permission to publish its final 
report, to embody: (1) A fairly definite outline of the reorganized yee for the 
12 years as embodied in the June, 1919, issue of the Historical Outlook; (2) a straight- 
forward statement justifying the program; (3) syllabi of certain selected topics and 
courses embodied in the program which will be put forth not as final recommenda- 
tions but merely as suggestive of the detailed treatment that might be accorded to 
the various parts of the program. 


_After consideration of the request by the committee on history and education for 
citizenship in the schools the council voted to adopt the following statement: 


In discharging the committee at its own request, the council desires to record its 
high appreciation of its laborious services. In view of the incomplete nature of the 
report and of the fact that a considerable difference of opinion seems to exist among 
the members of the association respecting the recommendations of the committee on 
history and education for citizenship in the schools, the council is apprehensive that 
formal publication of the report by the committee would appear to commit the asso- 
ciation prematurely, and therefore the council thinks it wise to refer the whole sub- 
ject to the new standing committee on history teaching in the school. 


It was voted to authorize the treasurer to pay from the appropriation of the 
committee on history and education for citizenship in the schools for 1920 the sum 
of $300 to Miss Frances Morehouse for services rendered to the committee. 

The secretary reported a request that was made to him informally by Mr. George 
Grafton Wilson for the appointment of a committee to cooperate with the historical 
section of the Navy Department. It was voted to authorize the committee on service 
to appoint acommittee of three to cooperate with the Historical Section of the Navy 
Department in such manner as may be desired by the chief of the section. It was 
also voted to authorize the committee on service to meet similar requests in a sim- 
ilar way. 

It was voted to authorize the committee on appointments to appoint two repre- 
sentatives of the association to cooperate with the Peoples of America Society in 
accordance with the previous vote of the council. 

The council adjourned to meet at 1140 Woodward Building on December 30 at 


9.30 a. m, 


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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 107 


MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL HELD 
AT 1140 WOODWARD BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C., ON DECEM- 
BER 30, 1920 


The council met at 9.45a.m. Present: First Vice President Haskins, presiding, 
Messrs. Bourne, Burr, Cheyney, Cross, Fay, Hayes, Jameson, Moore, Sioussat, Miss 
Putnam, and the secretary. There also attended Mr. Allen R. Boyd, editor, and 
Miss P. W. Washington, assistant secretary-treasurer. 

Mr. Bourne reported that, in compliance with the request of the council, he had 
attended the conference on the report of the committee on history and education 
for citizenship in the schools. After discussion it was found to be the sense of the 
council that the request of. the committee respecting the publication of its report 
should be disposed of in accordance with the statement adopted by the council in 
the session of December 29. 

It was voted to request Mr. Robert 8. Brookings, of St. Louis, to serve as clfRir- 
man of the committee on local arrangements for the St. Louis meeting. 

Mr. Archibald C. Coolidge was elected a member of the board of editors of the Amer- 
ican Historical Review for the unexpired term of Mr. E. P. Cheyney, who resigned 
from the board following his election as second vice president of the association. 

It was voted that the committee on agenda consist of the president, the vice presi- 
dents, the secretary, the treasurer, and four other members of the council to be 
designated. 

Mr. Daniel C. Knowlton was elected a member of the board of editors of the His- 
torical Outlook in place of Mr. Sioussat, who resigned following his election to the 
executive council. 

It was voted to establish a committee of five on endowment. The treasurer was 
appointed chairman of the committee with authority to appoint the other members 
in consultation with the secretary. 

It was voted that the secretary and treasurer, in consultation with the committee 
on bibliography, be authorized to make arrangements for the publication of the 
Manual of Historical Literature. 

It was voted that the secretary, with such consultation as he may desire, be 
authorized to make appointments for 1921 to the ordinary standing committees of 
the council. 

It was voted to suggest to the committee on local arrangements for the St. Louis 
meeting that the sessiens commence on Wednesday, December 28, and last three days. 

Mr. Waldo G. Leland was appointed a committee of one to confer with representa- 
tives of other learned societies in order to obtain reduced railroad rates for the an- 
nual meetings of these societies. 

The secretary was instructed to extend the thanks of the council to the committee 
on local arrangements for the Washington meeting, to the Librarian of Congress, to 
the Women’s City Club, and to the Association of Collegiate Alumne for services, 
courtesies, and hospitalities in connection with the present meetings of the associa- 
tion. The secretary was authorized to write a letter to the Secretary of War in ap- 
preciation of his address at the dinner on December 29. 

The council adjourned. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL ADOPTED BY COR- 
RESPONDENCE WITH THE MEMBERS 
APPOINTMENTS TO COMMITTEES OF THE COUNCIL 


Committee on Agenda.—Charles H. Haskins (ex officio), chairman; John S. Bassett 
(ex officio), Edward P. Cheyney (ex officio), Arthur L. Cross, Sidney B. Fay, Carl- 
ton J. H. Hayes, Jean Jules Jusserand, Charles Moore (ex officio), Frederic L. Paxson. 


| 


108 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Committee on meetings and relations.—John S. Bassett, chairman; Edward Chan- 
ning, Carl Russell Fish, Ruth Putnam, James T. Shotwell. 

Committee on finance.—Charles Moore, chairman; John 8. Bassett, Sidney B. Fay, 
Frederic L. Paxson, St. George L. Sioussat. 

Committee on appointments.—Jean Jules Jusserand, chairman; John S. Bassett, 
Edward P. Cheyney, Carl Russell Fish, Carlton J. H. Hayes. 


APPOINTMENTS TO STANDING COMMITTEES OF THE ASSOCIATION 


Committee on history teaching in the schools.—Henry Johnson, chairman; Henry E. 
Bourne, Philip P. Chase, Guy Stanton Ford, Daniel C. Knowlton, Albert E. McKin- 
ley, Eugene M. Violette. 

Committee on service.—J. Franklin Jameson, chairman; Elbert J. Benton, Clarence 
S. Brigham, Worthington C. Ford, Arthur C. Howland, Albert E. McKinley, James 
Sullivan. 

Committee on membership, associate members (appointed by the chairman).— Milledge 
L. Bonham, jr., Henry E. Bourne, Julian P. Bretz, Robert P. Brooks, Sarah A. 
Dynes, Austin P. Evans, J. Montgomery Gambrill, Sheldon J. Howe, M. Berna 
Hunt, Laurence M. Larson, John H. Logan, Margaret J. Mitchell, Laurence B. Pack- 
ard, George Petrie, Walter Prichard, Charles H. Rammelkamp, Morgan P. Robinson, 
Louis M. Sears, Augustus H. Shearer, Earl E. Sperry, David Y. Thomas, Frederic 
L. Thompson, Norman M. Trenholme, James A. Woodburn, Jesse E. Wrench, John 
P. Wynne. 

Committee on hereditary patriotic societies.—Dixon R. Fox, chairman; Natalie S. 

Lincoln, Harry Brent Mackoy, Mrs. Annie L. Sioussat, R. C. Ballard Thurston. 
' Committee on local arrangements for thirty-sixth annual meeting.—William K. Bixby, 
chairman; Mrs. Nettie H. Beauregard, Ralph P. Bieber, Stella M. Drumm, David R. 
Francis, Benjamin Gratz, John H. Gundlach, Breckinridge Jones, Mrs. Robert 
McKittrick Jones, Breckinridge Long, Mrs. N. A. McMillan, Thomas M. Marshall, 
Charles P. Pettus, George R. Throop. 

Committee on bibliography of American travel.—Benjamin F. Shambaugh, chairman; 
Solon J. Buck, M. M. Quaife. 


APPOINTMENTS TO SPECIAL COMMITTEES OF THE ASSOCIATION 


Committee to cooperate with the Peoples of America Society in the study of race ele- 
ments in the United States.—John S. Bassett, chairman; Frederic L. Paxson. 


Register of Attendance at the Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting at 
Washington, D. C. 


A Arnett, Alex Mathews. Belmende, Victor Andrés. 
Abel, Annie Heloise. Asakawa, K. Belote, Theodore. 
Adams, Randolph G. Atkeson, Mary Meek. Benton, E. J. 
Adams, Victoria A. B Berry, Sarah. 
Allison, William H. Best, Harry. 
Ambler, Charles H. Baldwin, Alice M. Betten, Rev. Francis 8. 
Ames, Herman V. Baldwin, James F. Beveridge, Albert J. 
Anderson, D. R. Barclay, Thomas 8S. Bieber, Ralph P. 
Anderson, Frank Maloy. _ Barnes, Harry E. Bigelow, Col. John. 
Andrews, Charles M. Barss, Katharine G. Black, J. William. 
Andrews, George Gordon. Bassett, John Spencer. Bolton, Herbert E. 


Appleton, William W. Becker, Carl. Bond, Beverley W., jr. 


| 
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THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 


Boucher, Chauncey 8. 
Bourne, Henry E. 
Bowden, Witt. 

Bowden, Mrs. Witt. 
Bowerman, G. F. 

Boyd, William K. 
Brandon, Edgar Ewing. 
Brandt, Walther I. 
Bridges, Samuel G. 
Briggs, Elizabeth. 
Brook, Elizabeth Cable. 
Brown, Marshall S. 
Brown, Samuel H. 
Bryan, W. B. 

Burk, Rev. W. Herbert. 
Burr, G. L. 

Butler, Dorthy. 


C 


Cairnes, Laura J. 
Caldwell, Wallace E. 
Callahan, James Morton. 
Carman, Harry J. 
Carpenter, William 8S. 
Carrier, Lyman. 
Carroll, E. M. 
Chambers, Raymond. 
Chandler, J. A. C. 
Channing, Edward. 
Chapman, Charles E. 
Chen, Geoffrey C. 
Cheyney, E. P. 
Churchill, George M. 
Clark, Hollis Chenery. 
Clark, Victor 8S. 


Clarkson, Jesse Dunsmore. 


Clemen, Rudolph A: 
Cole, Arthur C. 

Cole, Mrs. E. W. 
Cole, Theodore L. 
Coleman, Christopher B. 
Colgate, Lathrop. 
Colvin, Caroline. 
Conant, Isabel Fiske. 
Conlan, Mrs. Michael. 
Connor, R. D. W. 
Coulomb, Charles A. 
Coulter, E. M. 

Cox, Isaac Joslin. 
Creutz, Gregory M. 
Crofts, F. 8. 

Cross, Arthur Lyon. 
Crossman, L. E. 


Crouse, N. M. 
Curtis, Eugene Newton. 


D 


Dargan, Marion. 
Davenport, Frances G. 
David, Charles Wendell. 
Day, Clive. 

DeForest, Sarah S. 
Dodd, William E. 


Donnan, Elizabeth. 
Drane, Rev. Robert Brent. 


Duncan, D. Shaw. 
Dutcher, George M. 


E 


Eckenrode, H. J. 
Ellery, Eloise, 

Ellis, Ellen Deborah. 
Emerton, Ep! sim. 
Evans, Austin P. 


F 


Fairbanks, Elsie D. 
Farr, Shirley. 
Fay, Bernard. 
Fay, Sidney B. 
Ferrin, Dana H. 
Ferry, Nellie Poyntz. 
Fitzpatrick, J. C. 
Flick, Alexander C. 
Flippin, Percy Scott. 
Flournoy, F. R. 
Fogdall, S. P. 
Ford, Worthingtcn C. 
Foster, Herbert D. 
Fox, Dixon Ryan. 
Fox, George L. 
Fuller, George N. 

G 
Gallagher, Katharine 

Jeanne. 

Gardner, Elizabeth. 
Garfield, H. A. 
Gaskill, G. E. 
Gaus, John Merriman. 
Gazley, John G. 
Gibbons, Lois Oliphant. 
Gipson, Laurence H. 
Godard, George S. 
Gosnell, C. B. 
Gould, Clarence P. 
Graves, W. Brooke. 


109 


Gray, Helen. 

Greenfield, Kent Roberts. 
Greve, Harriet C. 
Grizzell, E. D. 

Grose, Clyde L. 

Grouard, Maria Louise. 
Guilday, Rev. Peter. 


H 


Hamilton, J.G. de Roulhac. 
Haring, Clarence H. 
Harrison, Fairfax. 
Haskins, Charles H. 
Hayden, Joseph R. 
Hayes, Carlton J. H. 
Hayes, Mercy J. 
Haynes, George H. 
Hazard, Blanche Evans. 
Healy, Patrick J. 
Hearon, Cleo. 
Heckel, Albert K. 
Hedger, George A. 
Heston, Hiram. 
Hickman, Emily. 
Hicks, J. D. H. 
Higby, Chester P. 
Hill, Henry W. 
Hockett, Homer C, 
Hodder, F. H. 
Hodgdon, Frederick C. 
Holt, Lucius H. 
Hoover, Thomas N. 
Hoskins, Halford Lancas- 
ter. 
House, R. B. 
Hull, Charles H. 
Humphrey, E. F. 
Hunt, Gaillard. 
Husband, W. W. 


I 


Irby, Louise. 
Irons, Mrs. W. 8. 
Isanogle, A. M. 


J 


Jackson, W. C. 

James, Alfred P. 
Jameson, J. F. 
Jenison, Marguerite E. 
Jernegan, M. W. 
Johnson, Allen. 
Johnson, Edward P. 
Jones, C. K. 

Jones, Theodore F. 


| 
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110 


K 


Kellar, Herbert A. 
Kellar, Mrs. Herbert A. 
Kellogg, Louise Phelps. 
Kendrick, Benjamin B. 
Kennelly, A. E. 
Kennelly, Mrs. A. E. 
Kerner, Robert Joseph. 
Kilgore, Carrie B. 
Kincaid, Marion B. 
Kinchen, Oscar A. 
Kinnicutt, Lincoln N. 
Klein, Julius. 
Klingenhagen, Anna M. 
Knapp, Charles M. 
Knauss, James Owen. 
Knowlton, Daniel C. 
Kollock, Margaret P. 
Konkle, Burton Alva. 
Korff, Baron 8. A. 
Korff, Baroness S. A. 
Kull, Irving 8. 


L 


Latané, John W. 
Learned, H. Barrett. 
Leavenworth, Charles S. 
Leland, Waldo G. 
Lerch, Alice Hollister. 
Lewis, Hazel R. 

Lima, M. de Oliveira. 
Lingelbach, William E. 
Lonn, Ella. 

Lough, Susan M. 

Lunt, W. E. 

Lutz, Ralph H. 


M 


MacCarthy, Charles Hallan. 
MacDonald, William. 
McDougle, Ivan E. 
McDuffie, Penelope. 

Mace, W. H. 

McFayden, Donald. 
McGuire, C. E. 

McKinley, Albert E. 
McMaster, John Bach. 
Manhart, George B. 
Manning, William R. 
Marshall, Thomas Maitland. 
Martin, A. E. 

Martin, Percy Alvin. 
Mereness, Newton D. 


Merritt, Elizabeth. 
Minot, Jesse. 

Mitchell, Margaret J. 
Mitchell, Samuel Chiles. 
Moffett, Edna V. 

Mohr, Walter H. 

Moore, Charles. 

Morgan, Williams Thomas. 
Morrise, Margaret S. 
Munro, Dana Carleton. 
Musser, John. 

Muzzey, David Saville. 


N 


Nash, Elizabeth Todd. 
Neilson, N. 

Newhall, Richard A. 
Nichols, Roy Franklin. 
Nichols, Mrs. R. F. 
Nicolay, Helen. 
Norwood, J. Nelson. 
Notestein, Wallace. 
Noyes, Edmund 
Nussbaum, Frederick L. 


Oakes, George W. Ochs. 


Oldfather, C. H. 
Ott, Mary Castle. 


Owen, Mrs. Marie Bank- 


head. 
P 


Packard, Laurence B. 
Paetow, Louis J. 
Paine, Mrs. Clarence S. 
Paltsits, Victor Hugo. 
Parish, John C. 

Park, Julian. 
Pasvolsky, Leo. 
Patterson, David L. 
Paullin, C. O. 

Pearson, C. C. 
Pearson, Henry G. 
Pease, Theodore C. 
Perkins, Dexter. 
Pershing, B. H. 
Phillips, Ulrich B. 
Porcher, Isaac de C. 
Priddy, Mrs. Bessie Leach. 
Prince, L. Bradford. 


AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Purcell, Richard J. 
Putnam, Bertha Haven. 
Putnam, Herbert. 


R 


Rammelkamp, C. H. 
Ramadell, Charles W. 
Randall, J. G. 
Randall, Mrs. J. G. 
Randolph, Bessie C. 
Read, Conyers. 
Rees, Col. Robert I. 
Reeves, Jesse S. 
Reuter, Bertha Ann. 
Rhodes, James Ford. 
Richardson, Mrs. Hester 
Dorsey. 
Richardson, Lula M. 
Ridgate, Thomas H. 
Riley, Franklin L. 
Rippy, James Fred. 
Robertson, James A. 
Robinson, Morgan P. 
Rosenberry, M. B. 
Rosenberry, Mrs. M. B. 
Rostovtzeff, Michael T. 
Rowland, Dunbar. 
Russell, Elmer Beecher. 


8 


Sanborn, Bernice. 
Schafer, Joseph. 
Schlesinger, Arthur Meier. 
Sears, Louis M. 
Shaw, Caroline B. 
Shepherd, William R. 
Sherwood, Henry Noble. 
Shipman, Henry R. 
Shoemaker, Floyd C. 
Siebert, W. H. 
Simmons, Lucy. 
Sioussat, Mrs. Albert 
Sioussat, St. George L. 
Skeel, Mrs. Roswell, jr. 
Spaulding, Col. Oliver L., 
jr. 
Stevens, Earnest N. 
Stevens, Wayne E. 
Stilwell, Lewis D. 
Stites, Mary A. 
Stock, Leo F. 


: 


THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 


Stockton, Rear Admiral 
Charles H. 

Stone, Mrs. Mary Hanchett. 

Sullivan, James. 

Sweet, William W. 


T 


Tall, Lida Lee. 

Tanner, Edwin P. 

Taylor, Col. John R. M. 
Thompson, Frederic L. 
Thorndike, Lynn. 
Tschan, Francis J. 

Tuell, Harriet E. 

Turner, Edward Raymond. 
Turner, Frederick J. 
Turner, Morris K. 


U 
Ullrick, Laura F. 


Vv 


Van Bibber, Lena C. 
Van Tyne, C. H. 
Vaughn, Earnest V 
Vaux, George, jr. 
Vincent, John Martin. 


WwW 


Ware, Edith E. 
Washburn, Albert H. 
Washburne, George A. 


Weber, Nicholas Aloysius. 


Wendell, Hugo C. M. 
Wertenbaker, T. J. 
Wertheimer, Mildred 8S. 
West, Warren Reed. 
Wheeler, Benjamin W. 
White, Elizabeth B. 
Whitney, Cornelia. 
Wilkinson, William J. 


111 


Williams, Clarence R. 

Williams, Judith B. 

Williams, Mary Wilhel- 
mine. 

Wilson, George G. 

Wilson, J. Scott. 

Wilson, Lucy L. 

Wing, Herbert, jr. 

Wittke, Carl. 

Wood, George A. 

Woodfin, Maude Howlett. 

Wriston, Henry M. 

Wyatt, Frank S. 


Y 
Yoder, Bertha A. 
Z 


Zé.:~7on, Maurice M. 
Zook, George F. 


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I], PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIXTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF 
THE PACIFIC COAST BRANCH OF THE AMERICAN 
HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


CLAREMONT AND Los ANGELEs, CALiF., NOVEMBER 26-27, 1920 


97244°—25——8 113 


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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIXTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE PACIFIC 
COAST BRANCH OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


The sixteenth annual meeting of the Pacific Coast Branch of the 
American Historical Association was held on Friday morning and 
Friday afternoon, November 26, at Pomona College, and on Saturday 
morning, November 27, 1920, at the University of Southern Califor- 
nia. The annual dinner Friday evening was held at the Hotel Clark, 
Los Angeles, Calif., Prof. Herbert E. Bolton presiding. The presiding 
officers of the sessions were as follows: Friday morning, Prof. Walde- 
mar C. Westergaard; Friday afternoon, Prof. R. G. Clelland; Satur- 
day morning, Mr. W. F. Bliss, of the San Diego State Normal School. 

The general topic for the Friday morning session was “ Opportuni- 
ties for historical research.’’ The first paper of the session was 
presented by Prof. R. H. Lutz, of Stanford University, who described 
the Hoover collection at Stanford University. Professor Lutz pref- 
aced his remarks with the statement that the Hoover collection 
may be approached for study and historical research from almost 
any angle. He limited his remarks, however, to a discussion of three 
general phases—(1) the gathering of material; (2) its classification; 
(3) the most important fields for historical research. 

(1) The idea and general plan of starting the Hoover collection was 
first brought to the attention of Mr. Herbert Hoover almost at the 
beginning of the World War, when it was pointed out to him that a 
collection of war documents on all phases of the war would be of 
inestimable value in later years. The active gathering of documents, 
pamphlets, and papers of all kinds was started under the direction 
-of Mr. Hoover at the beginning of the work of the Committee for the 
Relief of Belgium. His chief assistants were Profs. E. D. Adams and 
Lutz. Documents were collected from every source possible, large 
collections of invaluable material being secured in London, Brussels, 
and Paris, and all through the eastern European States, whole 
collections of private documents sometimes being purchased contain- 
ing material which now can not be duplicated in the original. The 
process of gathering material for the Hoover collection still continues, 
as there remains much to be collected. It must be secured within 
the next few years or else be lost. This work is now going on all 
over the world, in every country which was at all affected by the 
war, and material is constantly coming in. 

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116 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Contents: The Hoover collection is one of the largest of its kind in 
the world, being one of three great collections similar in character, 
the other two being that of the Library of Congress at Washington 
and the Musée de la Guerre at Paris, France. The collection con- 
tains over 80,000 titles and has a value roughly estimated at $200,000. 
“ TE classifying the material, five main groups have been estab- 
ished. 

(a) Government documents of all kinds bearing on the period of 
the war from 1914 to 1919. These include records and reports relat- 
ing to the economic, industrial, and food conditions during the war 
in practically every country in the world. In addition, this group con- 
tains a great wealth of documents of a military and educational na- 
ture, nearly every government having gladly sent in whole collections 
of documents and other material on these subjects, giving a very 
complete history of tht country in practically all its different phases 
of life during the war. 

(b) Delegation propaganda at the time of the Peace Conference. 
This includes the publications and propaganda of all kinds from over 
70 delegations with their claims which were represented before the 
Peace Conference. It also includes propaganda material of an unau- 
thentic nature issued or published by opposing delegations to further 
their interests and injure those of their opponents, as in the case of 
Italy. From Italy came considerable propaganda purporting to be 
the claims of Yugoslavia, and Yugoslavia in turn published propa- 
ganda purporting to be the claims of Italy. A similar case was that 
of the Zionists and the Anti-Zionists. Reliable and authentic ma- 
terial containing the claims of these nations was secured by going 
direct to the various delegations themselves. 

(c) -Society publications of all kinds. This group includes the publi- 
cations of the French war societies, very complete in nature and of 
great historical value; publications of 300 British societies; of 200 
societies in the United States; also other miscellaneous publications 
from societies all over the world, in both neutral and belligerent 
countries; others are yet to be secured. The group includes also the © 
publications of some societies which were afterwards suppressed. 

(d) The complete archives and files of the Committee for the 
Relief of Belgium. The Belgium Government was very grateful for 
the services rendered by this commission and has given an immense 
amount of material to the Hoover collection. Documents from this 
source still continue to come in. 

(e) Miscellaneous material of all kinds pertaining tothe war. This 
includes odds and ends of picturesque publications; propaganda sheets 
in Belgium and in Germany and in Italy; Hungarian propaganda 
sheets; propaganda of the Bolsheviki in eastern Europe; trench papers 
and other similar curiosities; also a selected bibliography of books on 


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PROCEEDINGS OF THE PACIFIC COAST BRANCH 117 


the World War, written in the United States, England, France, and 
in other countries throughout the world. 

(3) The fields of research may be divided into eight general classes, 
in all of which the Hoover collection offers a vast amount of original 
material: 

(a) The social, political, and economic phases of the war as affect- 
ing England, France, and Belgium. The Government of Belgium has 
sent in practically everything published in that country. 

(6) Political, economic, and social life of Germany, Austria, and 
Bulgaria during the war. 

(c) The study of government documents illustrating the change in 
the life of European governments during the war. 

(d) The psychology of the Peace Conference; its plans, claims of 
the delegations, their desires and antagonisms, with a comparison of 
their claims and adjustments as shown by the peace treaty. 

(e) The history of the birth of new states: There is sufficient 
material now at Stanford University on which to write extensive 
monographs. 

(f) The field of international law and diplomacy. 

(g) The study of newspaper collections, of which there is a complete 
catalogue of the most prominent papers in the United States and in 
Europe during the entire period of the war. There is also the library 
of the British War Office. Both contain a wealth of propaganda 
material, offering an intensely interesting study. 

(h) The field of philanthrophy and the war; the record of how the 
United States fed a great part of Europe; this being one of the larg- 
est fields for research. 

The second speaker, Prof. P. A. Martin, of Stanford University, 
presented ‘‘The opportunities for historical research in Latin Amer- 
ican history,” stating that the field of Latin American history until 
recent years has been largely neglected, most of the research work 
that has been done lying chiefly in the field of diplomacy. At the 
present time there is already considerable material for research study 
at Stanford University in the great number of documents of the period 
of the World War, secured from all the Latin-American countries for 
the Hoover collection. Similar documents on early periods have 
been secured from most of the South American Governments. 

Materials for the study of Latin American history: Besides the 
immense amount of source material now to be found in the Hoover 
collection, there are a number of other collections at Stanford. A fine 
collection of material on Brazil from the time of its independence 
from Portugal has been secured through the indefatigable efforts of 
Dr. J.C. Branner, of Stanford University, who spent many years 
there. There is also an entire set of the Brazilian Historical Review 
from its first issue in 1842. There are in addition a complete set of 


118 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


laws and Government publications from the time of the independence 
of Brazil from Portugal in 1822, and other publications of an eco- 
nomic and social nature. The aim is to build up a collection of 
original source material on Portugese-American history at Stanford. 

Another collection has been made by Professor Coolidge, of Har- 
vard University, which consists of the private library of the librarian 
of the Government of Chile, which is very complete in nature, being 
valued at $125,000. Still another collection of materials for research 
study is that which has been secured by Prof. Hiram Bingham, at 
Yale University, on the wars of independence of the South American 
Republics. Other collections of material in this country are those 
of the Library of Congress, the University of Texas, and the com- 
plete library of Dr. Oliveira Lima, former ambassador from Brazil 
to the United States, on Brazilian history, which is now in the pos- 
session of the Catholic University at Washington and is considered 
the finest collection of its kind outside of Brazil. Further, there 
are the archives of the Department of State, rich in material, but 
which are closed at present. 


THE FIELDS FOR RESEARCH IN LATIN-AMERICAN HISTORY. 


The colonial period of South American history; a great many topics 
yet to be developed; a great deal of material also to be had at Mexico 
City. 

The study of institutions, their growth and development in 
Latin-American history, e. g., the Audiencia. 

The study of vice-royalties, of captaincies-general, of royal patron- 
age, and of the early financial systems. 

The Spanish-American wars for independence. This includes the 
study of famous leaders such as Bolivar, San Martin, Cortez. 

Nationalism and the development of the new states: Opportunities 
for research as to the lives and achievements of the great Jeaders 
of this period, Maximilian in Mexico; the lives of Presidents of the 
South American Republics, as Sarmiento; all these topics remain to 
be developed. There are ample opportunities for further research in 
the fields of economics, sociology, and political science, the slave 
trade in Brazil offering a vast field in this connection. 

There is at present a great dcmand for the services of men who are 
fitted for this type of work to assist not only in making these investi- 
gations but in offering assistance both to the United States and to the 
various Latin-American Governments in establishing closer relations 
between these countries. 

Opportunities for the publication of all research work of this 
character are offered not only in the publications of this country but 
also in South America in such publications as the Hispanic American 
Historical Review and others. 


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PROCEEDINGS OF THE PACIFIC COAST BRANCH 119 


The Huntington Library collection of American history was described by Doctor 
Cole, curator. The collection of American history material in the Huntington 
Library, which is soon to be open to the public and for research work, is of immense 
value. Although complete in itself, it forms but a small part of the great collection 
which is now being placed in the Huntington Library. The American history col- 
lection is classified as follows: 

(a) The period of discovery and exploration: 

(1) A number of original source books, which begin with the first Latin 
edition of the letters of Columbus. 

(2) The letters of Vespucius. 

(3) The Cortez letters, both the Latin and also one French edition. 

(4) The Las Casas tracts. 

(5) The works of Peter Martyr. 

(b) The period of colonization and settlement: 

(1) The MSS. of Elliott’s Indian Bible and translations. 

(2) The first almanacs printed in New York—the works of Bradford, etc. 

(3) Materials on the settlement of Virginia—Captain John Smith’s History 
of Virginia, with maps. 

(c) The Revolutionary period: 

(1) The original MSS. of the letters of George III to his Privy Councilors 
regarding the independence of the American Colonies; the minutes 
of the Privy Council. 

(2) a hundred Tory pamphlets issued in New York during the Revo- 

utionary War period. 

(d) The War of 1812: 

(1) A complete collection of original materials, military, political, and 
economic in character. 

(e) The period of the Civil War: 

(1) The MSS. of Union and Confederate generals; their letters and diaries, 

(2) A complete bibliography of books on the war in all its phases. 

(f) Other original MSS. material: 

(1) The letters of John Fiske. 

(2) The letters of Sherman, and letters and writings of Abraham Lincoln. 

(g) Materials on the history of California: 

(1) The collection of Mr. Alexander MacDonald—supplementing to a 
oo degree the Bancroft collection at the University of California. 

(2) Old Spanish and Mexican MSS. 


Lack of time prevented the reading of the following paper, “A 
brief statement of the opportunities for historical research in Ha- 
waii,’’ by Prof. K. C. Leebrick, of the University of Hawaii: 


Hawaii offers an unusually unique and rich field for the historical student. The 
source materials are well preserved. Most of them are gathered together in or about 
Honululu so that they are easily accessible and ready for study. A guide to the 
materials and archives is one of the tasks that needs be undertaken at once. 

The primitive and unwritten history of the Hawaiian Islands can be studied from 
unusually large collections of material remains of all kinds. The Bishop Museum 
has carefully collected almost everything that will help to preserve the life and cus- 
toms of the Hawaiian people or throw light upon the past history of the people and 
the country. A large staff of well-trained men and women are constantly at work 
collecting, arranging, and recording materials. The museum with its rich collec- 
tions, its reports, and its library, gives the student materials admirably arranged 
and preserved for this use. There are other lesser collections. The original dwell- 
ings, settlements, and other remains are within easy reach of the worker. 

The entire written history of the Hawaiian people and islands lies within a very 
recent period. The Spanish knew of the existence of the islands, but so far little 
has been found of record as to this early discovery. From the time of Captain 
Cook’s discovery of the islands in 1778, very good descriptions of the people and the 
islands have been made at frequent intervals by observers, of several nationalities, 


120 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


and by trained searchers in almost every fleld of knowledge. These records are 
here. Thus there is a very complete record of the people before their lives and his- 
tory were altered by contact with another civilization. Europeans from the very 
first have endeavored to make a complete record of this people, of their traditions 
and folklore, and of their political history. 

The political union of the islands was only achieved in 1795, after the coming of 
Europeans, and very largely by their aid and advice. There is a considerable body 
of original manuscript material, in English, covering this most vital period, which 
saw not only the unification of the archipelago but the modification of the customs 
and institutions of the people, due to European influence. 

The Hawaiian people were given a written language by the missionaries who 
arrived in the islands in 1820. They had been sent out by the American Board of 
Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Since that time the missionary has been the 
chief factor in the development of the people and the islands. There is a complete 
official record of the activities of this society in the English language. Other mis- 
sionary societies soon came into the field; their records are also complete and avail- 
able in English, French, and Latin. The various depositonies, official and private, 
have an almost complete record of all official and vital private documents from this 
early date to the present. Complete files are available of most public documents; of 
all newspapers, magazines, books, and pamphlets printed here since the people had 
a written language. These are generally to be had in both English and Hawaiian. 
This is most unusual. There is a considerable amount of this material printed for 
the entire period. The first printing was done in the Hawaiian language in January, 
1822, and printing in both Hawaiian and English has been continuous since that 
date. Iam informed that complete files are available for almost all public documents 
and books printed from the very beginning. 

Something has been done to collect documents and copies dealing with the 
relations with other countries. This will throw light upon the Hawaiian documents, 
which are almost absolutely complete. 

Official documents have been unusually well kept and generally well preserved. 
This is especially true from 1845, when Mr. Wyllie became Minister of Foreign 
Affairs. A commission was appointed by the legislature in 1892 to arrange and 
preserve all official records. This commission did its work well. The oldest 
documents are English and are dated 1790. 

The Hawaiian Historical Society was founded in 1892 and hasdone much to preserve 
and record public and private historical material of Hawaii. The “ Reports” and 
‘*Papers’’ of the society are preserved in complete files and have just been care- 
fully indexed. The society has built up a good working library of voyages to the 
islands; complete files of the missionary publications; of many of the books printed 
in Hawaii, in both Hawaiian and English; and of books printed about Hawaii. 
There is also a considerable quantity of pamphlet material; there are almost com- 
plete files of all newspapers and magazines; and there is some manuscript material, 

, but it is not completely catalogued or arranged. The collection is well housed in 
the beautiful Territorial Public Library. There are excellent opportunities for the 
research student. 

Shortly after the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands to the United States, Mr. 
W. C. Ford, of the Library of Congress, came to Hawaii to investigate the archives 
and to have at least a part of them transferred to Washington. He was urged to 
recommend that the archives remain here because of their local value; that he did 
on the condition that they be properly housed and cared for by the Territorial 
government. In accordance with this recommendation, the legislature of 1903 
provided money for a building; the legislature of 1905 passed an act providing for 
a board of commissioners of public archives. Active work began on the collection 


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PROCEEDINGS OF THE PACIFIC COAST BRANCH 121 


and preservation of the documents May 11, 1905. Since that time an excellent 
fireproof building has been erected on the capitol grounds and close to the Terri- 
torial library. Here are found the public records and documents of the Territory of 
Hawaii well arranged and stored so as to insure their preservation. The librarian, 
Mr. Robert C. Lydecker, has performed his duties well and is a mine of information 
regarding the records and history of Hawaii. The archive building is an excellent 
place to work. I think it sufficiently important to justify me in referring my read- 
ers to Mr. Lydecker’s paper on ‘‘ The Archives of Hawaii,”’ printed in ‘‘ Papers of 
the Hawaiian Historical Society,’’ No. 13, 1906. 

Since the organization of the College of Hawaii in 1907 as an agricultural and sci- 
entific college, the library of that institution has been a depository for the United 
States public documents. The College of Hawaii, now the University of Hawaii 
(1920), therefore has part of the official United States documents from about the year 
1908. Every effort is being made to complete the files and to obtain as many of the 
volumes before this period as are available. 

In addition to these sources one should call attention to the fact that many of the 
men who took the government into their hands in 1893 and organized an efficient 
government and opened the negotiations that led to annexation by the United States 
in 1898 are still iiving, and that they and their libraries are the best sources for this 
most interesting period. The writer. wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the 
Hon. 8S. B. Dole, former President of the Republic of Hawaii and the first governor 
after the annexation by the United States, for his advice and friendship. Acknowl- 
edgment is also due to the librarians of the libraries mentioned and to many of the 
‘elder statesmen ’’ of Hawaii. 

The business session was called to order at 2 p. m., with Presi- 


dent L. E. Young in the chair. 
The committee on resolutions, Prof. P. A. Martin, chairman, pre- 


sented the following resolutions which were adopted: 


(1) Whereas, by the death of Prof. Arley B. Show, of Stanford University, this 
association has lost one of its oldest members and the profession an able and conscien- 
tious scholar who throughout his long years of special work in the training of history 
teachers not only was a careful and stimulating instructor of those who came under 
his guidance but also displayed a warm personal interest in their later individual 
progress, doing much to elevate the standards of history teaching by inspiring the 
members of the profession with his own enthusiasm for accurate scholarship and for 
sympathetic and thorough teaching: Be it 

Resolved, That this association place on record its high appreciation of the unique 
and valuable service which Mr. Show rendered to the profession of history teaching 
on the Pacific coast, and the sense of loss, personal as well as collective, which his 
death has brought to them; and be it further 

Resolved, That copies of this resolution be sent to the president of Stanford Univer- 
sity and to Mr. Show’s family. 

(2) Resolved, That the funds so generously provided by the State board of educa- 
tion for libraries in the elementary schools be supplemented by other funds, or be 
so administered that the intermediate schools or high schools may obtain some of 
the advantages accruing from this source. 


The auditing committee, Professor Clelland, chairman, reported 
that it had examined the statement of account with vouchers of the 
secretary-treasurer and found the statement correct. The report was 
approved. - 

The committee on nominations, Prof. R.H. Lutz, chairman, presented 
as candidates: For president, R. C. Clark; vice president, P. J. 
Treat; secretary treasurer, J. J. Van Nostrand, jr. For the council, 


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122 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


in addition to the above, W. C. Westergaard, Miss Sara L. Dole, 


W. F. Bliss. 

On motion, the nominations were closed and the secretary was 
instructed to cast the ballots for those nominees who were declared 
elected. On motion of the secretary, Prof. L. E. Young was appointed 
delegate of the branch to attend the meeting of the council of the 
American Historical Association at Washington D. C. 

The business session then adjourned, to be followed immediately 
by the general session of the afternoon. 

The first speaker was Prof. R. D. Hunt, of the University of 
Southern California, whose subject was “The contribution of politi- 
cal science to education.”’ A résumé of Professor Hunt’s address 


follows: 

History, with man as its subject, is surely one of the subjects very intimately 
connected with human society. This being so, it isa subject that requires expert 
handling. It can not be confined to any restricted area or put in water-tight com- 
partments and still be a subject dealing with life. More than this, education itself 
can not be considered liberal unless it has the broadest of foundations. No teacher 
can confine his work or his thinking to any one narrow field. 

The end of our education is intelligent citizenship. The educated man is the 
broad man sharpened toa point; and this is the type of men that America needs 
to-day, as citizens, more than ever before in her history. And not only does Amer- 
ica need this new strength, but Europe needs it even more urgently. The civiliza- 
tion in practically every country of Europe is at such a low ebb that in innumerable 
places it is at the point of death. Austria, as an example, subsists through charity 
alone. This condition offers a challenge to opulent America. 

At such atime as this, America must not become the victim of the diseases of 
Spain or Rome. She must be strong in intellectual and spiritual life, and the college 
men must be the ones to furnish this strength for America. At the present time 
our people of all classes are obsessed with a spirit of lawlessness which must be over- 
come. Democracy is never safe in the hands of its enemies. In President Wilson’s 
words, ‘‘What we seek is the reign of law, based upon the consent of the governed, 
and sustained by the organized opinion of mankind.’’ But higher than law—the 
letter of which we can comply with—is the reign of moral law. America must 
learn to appreciate the value of morality. 


Doctor Hunt gave several suggestions which should apply to the 
teaching of civics and citizenship as well as political science. 


Stress fundamental principles. There is much ignorance of our economic funda- 
mentals to-day. 

Teach social science through social service. This point of view is a necessity for 
society’s future leaders. Service is the aim. 

Preach and practice political idealism. The common man must have his rightful 
place in political life, and that place must be elevated. 

Restore a new type of Puritanism; ‘“‘he that prays best and preaches best will 
fight best.’’ 

Put principle before expediency. Weare all too much concerned with “‘ putting it 
over” and too little with service of the public. 

Exalt the spiritual meaning of life. Spirituality is the leaven of truth hidden in 
human thought, feeling, and action.. Great grasp of religion will give to the historian 
insight and vision. In our education, the kind of education that a student gets 


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PROCEEDINGS OF THE PACIFIC COAST BRANCH 123 


matters more than the quantity of it. He must have that which is quickened by 
spiritual life. In order to give this, a teacher must be a dynamic creative personal- 
ity as well asa scholar, and college teachers must lead in spiritual, humanitarian 
vision. To do this will be to follow in the steps of the world’s greatest teachers, for 
all of them have placed the emphasis on life. 

The second speaker, Dr. George S. Sumner, took as his subject, 
“The importance of economics in the training and teaching of his- 
tory.” 

Résumé: What does it profit a man to deal simply with the facts 
of history? The vital thing is movement. We must try to ascer- 
tain the motivating forces in all cases. To do this, a study of the 
fundamental facts of economics is necessary. Doctor Sumner would 
not say that the economic treatment of history is the only one to be 
given attention; but he does feel that of the various forces that are 
behind history, the economic force is the strongest. Next to this, 
will probably come the psychological force. 

Thus, history is a means to the twofold end of vitalizing the 
movements of life and of giving application to present-day problems 
as they are seen in relation to the past. 

Then, economics must not be given a separate treatment; it must 
be placed in its proper position with respect to the great movements 
of humanity. The fall of Rome had its economic problem above 
everything else; Turkey’s condition can be explained largely from an 
economic viewpoint; the Spanish War of 1898 had its economic 
causes. We must get the benefit in our present life of the economic 
mistakes of the past. The actual economic condition in the past, as 
well as in the present, and not a theoretical condition, must be the 
basis of all of our present study of economics. 

Mr. Victor Farrar, of the University of Washington, then spoke on 
“The United States policy with regard to Alaska.” 

Mr. Farrar gave in outline an account of his study with reference to 
the Alaskan question. In brief, he said that the treaty with Russia 
of 1824 did not define the boundary of Alaska and ended in our 
denial of Russia’s title to Alaska. In 1838 we had not admitted 
Russia’s title more than to say that she had a sphere of influence. 
Unless Russia acquired the title before 1840, she did not have it 
in 1867, for we know that she did not acquire it after 1840. The 
British negotiations suggest that such title was never obtained. But 
at any rate we cleared the title when our Government purchased the 
Alaskan Territory. 

The meeting than adjourned. 

The annual dinner was attended by 28 members. All present were 
inspired by the presidential address of Professor Young, who im- 
pressed us with his eloquent and forceful remarks. Speaking as he 
did out of the fullness of his experience and study and not from notes, 


124 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


the president suffers at the hands of an untrained reporter. The sub- 
ject, ‘“‘Religious influences in the history of the West,” was chosen 
because the speaker had come to believe that there was something 
fundamentally deep in the spirit of the pioneer. The religious insti- 
tutions of the West express one phase of this depth of feeling. Art 
and music are later expressions of this same idealism. Its emphasis 
upon education has been constant from the beginning. A spirit so 
many-sided in expression can not be neglected by the historian who 
wishes to interpret fully the age of the pioneer. 

The teachers’ session, held on Saturday, November 27, 1920, 9.30 
a.m. at the University of Southern California considered the general 
topic: ‘The social sciences and education for citizenship in the 
schools.’”? Mr. W. F. Bliss, State Normal School, San Diego, presid- 
ing, said: 

‘‘o sum up in a phrase the central idea of thought so far, I should say the business 
of the historian is to seek ultimately for the idealism of the people he is writing about 
and describing, as expressed in economic activities and in other activities and insti- 
tutions; and it is the business of the teacher to bring the pupils into contact with 
these ideals and to inspire them to live up to them in their life activities. It is in 
keeping with that thought that the program for to-day has been arranged. 


Proposed programs.—Prof. E. Dawson, Hunter College, New York 
City: 

Asa university and college teacher, Iam convinced that we have a tendency in 
America, and even in the West, to be academic. We havea tendency not to make 
use of our scientific knowledge for practical purposes. I am a political scientist. 
Mr. Richard §S. Childs says: ‘‘ There is such a thing as political science, but no real 
red-blooded American will confess it.’”? When speaking to some one of my friends 
here this morning, I said something about teaching elementary political science in 
the high schools. He said, ‘‘Elementary?’’ Some think there is nothing in politi- 
cal science teachable in secondary schools. If that is true, I am in favor of elimi- 
nating it from the university. Political science is the organization of democratic 
government. 

The purpose of teaching social studies is to introduce the graduates of our high 
schools to the problems which confront our community, in order that we may have 
leadership in the solution of these problems on the basis of scientific knowledge. 
The twelfth year course in problems of democracy is thought of by the commission 
as a course in the introduction of the solution of the problems of democracy through 
some knowledge of scientific economics on the one hand and scientific politics on the 
other. As I understand it, we have not a solution as yet. 

If political science is to present to us an organization based on scientific study of 
human psychology and human practices in past democratic efforts, then our task in 
teaching political science in the schools is to present them, not with a description of 
the constitution of the State of California or of the State of New York, two instru- 
ments of which any civilized people ought to be ashamed, but the principle is to 
improve those instruments in order that our Government may no longer be what 
Elibu Root called ‘‘ An invisible government.’’ Our political science is academic. 
A very distinguished political science teacher recently said: ‘‘ Not a single construc- 
tive book on political science has been written by a university professor in the last 
five years.”’ 


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PROCEEDINGS OF THE PACIFIC COAST. BRANCH 125 


In the fourth year work of the high school, as is suggested by this bulletin, elemen- 
tary economics and elementary political scienee is to be given. What has that course 
to do with the course in American history, which immediately precedes it, and the 
course in European history, which lies one year below? What kind of European his- 
tory ought we to teach in the high school, after we have walked 10 blocks down the 
the streets of Los Angeles and seen the people? What do we want them to know? 

The result of whatever history we teach should be to lead the student toward a 
hopeful evolution of the human race. I am confident that we have not reached, as 
President Butler said, ‘‘the top of the curve of western civilization.’’ But unless 
we teach optimistic, constructive organization, we may possibly become pessimists. 
Therefore, the European history is the background of world history, into which we 
want to fit American history as the next step; that is, the people who wrote that 
report thought of those three years, not as three different courses, but as one course, 
beginning with whatever kind of foundation or basis we must lay down to introduce 
the person to American history and whatever there is about American history to help 
one understand the problems which confront us. 


Discussion opened by Mr. R. L. Ashley, Pasadena High School: 


It seems to me that after all this problem is a very much larger one than we have 
been making it. It isa problem of education of a group of boys and girls passing 
through a certain physical and mental stage in their existence. There are twce bases 
upon which we can place this problem for the analysis or study of it. Professor 
Hoose said: ‘‘ You are not teaching algebra; you are not teaching history; you are 
not teaching English. You are teaching John and you are teaching Sally.”” As a 
matter of fact, here we have aproblem. These boys and girls come to us in their 
’teens. In talking over the problems as to what we shall give them, what consider- 
ation do we give to the adolescent age, -to mental and physical development, to 
psychical reactions? 

Community civics is a study of group organization and functioning approached from 
the standpoint of the individual in his relation to the community or communities 
in which he lives. I believe the only way to organize the material in social science, 
which we are trying to present to the students, must be to take it up from the stand- 
point of civics—present-day institutions, present-day activities—and study the past 
from that angle. We must integrate the courses. I think not more than one year of 
social science ought to be required in the three years of the upper high school. 

We must know more about the boys and girls we are teaching, because we don’t 
know what to give them until we know something about them. When we know 
something about them we can group them. They are probably varying from 8 to 9 
years, mental age, to 16 or 17. The student who is mentally 16 lives in an entirely 
different world from the 8-year-old. The first point which I wish to contend is 
this—that we shall study these students and get some kind of mental measurements. 
Let us find something about the mental age and classify according to mental age 
and different capacities. 

The children have had a very direct reaction to their environment, -to the studies 
they have had. They have been growing rather rapidly up to 10 and then rather 
slowly to 13. Their memories are probably good and formations within the brain 
are developing with such rapidity that if habits are formed at that time they are 
never forgotten, and if not formed, are probably never formed. The teaching of 
civics in the grades is almost absolutely a failure, probably because we are trying to 
teach the kind of civi¢s we teach in high school. The brains of these students have 
not formed yet and it is impossible for them to get new points of view. Before this 
time they are in direct relation with those with whom they have immediate dealings. 
They can not see the relationship between themselves and any other group. At this 


126 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


point, when students are just beginning to develop other-selfness, getting new view- 
points in connection with religion, themselves, the suggestion is made that they take 
up the study of group organization and the relation of the individual to the group. 
This seems to me one of the difficulties which the student can not possibly overcome. 
I think it will be possible only to take this up after students have developed this 
new sense of relationship. 


Discussion continued by Miss Anna Stewart, Los Angeles High 


School: 

I feel that the salvation of democracy lies with the leaders and not with the 
average. 

My reaction to Bulletin No. 28 is this: A strong desire to come to the defense of 
history; and it seems to me that Mr. Ashley has laid the foundation for the defense 
of history. I am in full accord with making the social sciences function. 

The bulletin says: ‘‘ History, as it is usually taught, is not adapted to the needs of 
pupils of the ninth grade.’? The conclusion is: Teach social science instead. The 
bulletin further reads: ‘‘ Children live in the present and not in the past. The past 
becomes educational to them only as it is related to the present.’’ Then they draw 
the conclusion that history must be set aside or used only occasionally. ‘‘ Here sto- 
ries and pioneer stories are of use in the early grades because children react naturally 
to them.’’ Children do react to these stories. SodoI; sodo you. I have three 
books at home that I am just reading. They are all biographies. Curiosity is a part 
of human nature and it seems to me we may depend upon children of the eighth and 
ninth grades being interested in these biographies. History is a record of human 
experience, and human experience is necessarily based on our instincts and interests. 
How can you teach history? For example, I would present to an American history 
class some such topic as this: ‘‘The strange way in which Egyptians raised their 
food.”” I would then ask them to compare this with the way in which California 
raises its food. Or I might ask them to compare present-day fighting with the fight- 
ing of the Assyrians. But no, this is too simple! We must rip up the course of 
study! This is a course on the art of fighting or this is a course on food study. 

The bulletin says ‘‘ Civics should precede later history courses.’’ Why? Does it 
not carry its own interpretation? I should absolutely reverse that statement. The 
Los Angeles elementary schools are shot through with community civics. All that 
can be taught of human relationships is being taught throughout the elementary 
grades. We need a good strong socializing course in the normal schools for the 
preparation of our teachers to teach these subjects as they should be taught. 

If we are going to presume that students will drop out at the end of the ninth or 
tenth year, what shall we offer them after civics? I would suggest a reading course, 
teaching them how to read magazines and books and how to use a library. 

Knocking chronology seems to be the pastime of social science writers. The bul- 
letin says to teach crusades chronologically if you want to, but when it comes to 
institutions it is necessary to describe them. Why do we care about descriptions of 
the church as an institution? Only because it played an important part in a great 
historical drama. The same might be said about feudalism. Feudalism is a part of 
the great movement of the Middle Ages, and its rise, supremacy, and decline are of 
interest to us. 

Chronology functions horizontally as well as vertically. Chronology functions 
horizontally when we are studying parallel contemporary movements. For ex- 
ample, in studying slavery, can I take just slavery? No; I have to say slavery and 
the need for a great labor supply. Chronology functions vertically when we take 
things in sequence order. Grover Cleveland is quoted: ‘‘I do not understand any 


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PROCEEDINGS OF THE PACIFIC COAST BRANCH 127 


theory unless I know how it came to be; I do not understand any problem unless [ 
know how it came to be.’’ That is chronology. 

I am going to speak in defense of ancient history. It offers us an easier approach 
pedagogically and presents fewer details. The factors and viewpoints stand out and 
it is these that give us our ladder to the social sciences. We have a spiritual kin- 
ship with Judea, Greece, and Rome. Ancient history challenges attention. Things 
are different and arouse our curiosity. What was the cause of the recent war? I 
think you will find it in the heart of the ancient world as much as anywhere else. 
Zimmerman, in Nationality and Government, writes: ‘‘It is not the principle of 
nationality that would bring peace and good government to Europe, but the prin- 
ciple of toleration.” 

Why should chronology be put in opposition to sociology? I believe they are 
Siamese twins, myself. A social worker recently said: ‘‘ First we locate the 
family—ancestry, time, place, circumstances, etc.’’ Historically speaking, it is 
chronology that does that for us. ‘‘ Until we place the family, we can do nothing 
for them,’’ continued the social worker. I conclude, then, that as to the chronolog- 
ical plan there are no gaps that are more serious than any other plan. The social 
plan is easier pedagogically. It offers all that any other plan offers and something 
more. That something more is the very essence of history itself. 

Turning to the California situation, and recognizing that it may be unlike that of 
other places, how shall we organize the high school? I think four years can be used 
to very great advantage. There should be a citizenship course every term. I am 
not sure the social science department should always get it. The English depart- 
ment, I believe, should sometimes have it. In our high school, in B-9, they have 
patriotic ballads and debates. In the A-10 there are courses on vocational guidance. 
Already the English department is doing very definite work. I should like to see 
it more definite. 7 

Bulletin No. 28 does not wholly apply to California. Ninth-year civics is undesir- 
able because it eliminates twelfth-year civics. It is practical and definite, not 
vaguely socializing. We need leadership, but we can’t get it from the man with the 
dinner pail or from the newsboy. We can get it from the high-school students. I 
don’t think we spend much time on the dry outlines of the constitution. It is always 
the informing principle that we are concerned with. In handling our material we 
should have our approach vary; otherwise, the .hing becomes monotonous. In the 
senior year it might be approached in this manner: First, state the problem; 
secondly, survey it historically. In organizing a course of study I have always been 
guided by the one keynote, ‘‘integration.’’ In the selection of material it has been 
the interpretation of experience. What do I mean by ‘‘integration’’? I mean this: 
I don’t have a current events class, but every single social science class uses current 
events in one way or another—events related in some way to the subject under 
consideration. 


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III, PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE 
OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 


Washington, December 28, 1920 


Reported by 


JOHN C. PARISH 
Secretary 


97244°—25——9 129 


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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF HIS- 
TORICAL SOCIETIES 


Reported by Joun C. Parisn, Secretary 


The sixteenth annual session of the conference of historical societies 
met at Washington, D. C., in joint session with the National Associ- 
ation of War History Organizations, on Tuesday morning, December 
28, 1920, with Mr. James Sullivan, State historian of New York, in 
the chair. Three papers were presented to the conference. Mr. Karl 
Singewald, of the Maryland War Records Commission, read a care- 
ful survey of ‘‘ Progress in the collection of war history records by 
State war history organizations.” Mr. Albert E. McKinley, of the 
University of Pennsylvania, followed with a paper on ‘‘Suggestions 
and plans for State and local publications on war history.” The 
third paper was presented by Mr. Joseph Schafer, of the State His- 
torical Society of Wisconsin, on the subject of “Coordination of 
historical societies within the States.” The discussion of this paper 
was led by Mr. Worthington C. Ford, of the Massachusetts Historical 
Society, and was participated in by various delegates to the confer- 
ence. The text of these papers and an account of the discussion 
which followed are given in the later pages of these proceedings. 

The meeting was followed by a business session presided over by 
the chairman of the conference, Mr. George S. Godard, State librarian 
of Connecticut. Mr. John C. Parish, secretary of the conference, 
reported informally on activities for the year. Announcement of the 
meeting was sent out in November to all the societies, together with 
questionnaires as to conditions and activities and a reminder of 
membership dues, upon which the conference was largely dependent 
for its existence. At the time of the meeting about 90 replies from 
the questionnaires had been received and dues had come in sufficiently 
to cover the expenses of the year and leave $73.24 in the treasury. 
The secretary, in his report to the council of the American Historical 
Association, had asked for a renewal of the appropriation of $25 from 
that body, which was granted. 

The secretary stated that it was the intention to publish the pro- 
ceedings of the conference in separate form during the year without 
waiting for the reprint from the annual report of the American His- 
torical Association. The proceedings for the year 1917 had been dis- 

131 


132 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


tributed to the societies and included reports on over 400 societies, 
the largest number yet listed. 

It was recommended by the secretary that the conference proceed 
definitely to the carrying forward of two movements which have long 
been agitated and to that end he proposed that two active commit- 
tees be appointed, one to take steps for the publication of a hand- 
book of historical societies, the other to take action with reference 
to a eontinuation of Griffin’s Bibliography of American Historical 
Societies. 

The following motions were then carried by the conference: 

Moved, that a committee of three be appointed by the chairman 
of this conference to lay plans and provide media for the compilation 
and publication of a handbook of American historical societies. 

Moved, that a committee of three be appointed by the chairman 
of this conference to lay plans and provide media for the compilation 
and publication of a continuation of the 1905 volume of Griffin’s 
Bibliography of American Historical Societies through the year 
1920. 

The chairman later appointed the following members of these 
committees: 

The committee on the handbook.—Mr. George N. Fuller, of the 
Michigan Historical Commission; Mr. Solon J. Buck, of the Minne- 
sota Historical Society; Mr. John C. Parish, of the State Historical 
Society of Iowa. 

The committee on the Griffin bibliography.—Mr. Joseph Schafer, of 
the State Historical Society of Wisconsin; Mr. Appleton P. C. Griffin, 
of the Library of Congress; Mr. Julius H. Tuttle, of the Massachu- 
setts Historical Society. 

Mr. Dunbar Rowland, chairman of the committee on cooperation 
of historical societies and departments presented the following report 
which was adopted by the conference: 


To the Conference of Historical Societies: 

The committee on cooperation of historical departments and societies submits 
this its seventh and final report. 

At the 1907 meeting of the association held in Madison this committee was 
appointed for the purpose of bringing about cooperation among historical agencies 
having common interests and holding membership in the American Historical 
Association. 

The first report of the committee was submitted in 1908 at the Richmond meet- 
ing. The following recommendations made in that report were adopted by the 
conference: 

“First. That the historical agencies of the Mississippi Basin join in a coopera- 
tive search of the French archives for historical material relating to the States em- 
braved in that territory. 

‘*Second. That a complete working calendar of all materials in the French 
archives relating to the Mississippi Basin be prepared by an agent appointed by the 
representatives of the conference having the matter in hand. 


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SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 133 


“Third. That the calendar when completed be published and distributed under 
the representatives of the conference. 

“Fourth. That the necessary money for the preparation, publication, and dis- 
tribution of the calendar be raised by voluntary contributions from the historical 
agencies represented in the conference.” 

The annual reports of 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912, 1913, and 1914 which appear in the 
annual reports of the American Historical Association for those years give a detailed 
account of the progress of the work, the sums contributed, and the expenditures of 
the fund to 1914. 

In August, 1914, as the work of the committee in the French archives was near- 
ing completion, France was invaded by the armies of Germany, and the state of 
war, which continued until November, 1918, compelled the postponement of the 
undertaking until the return of peace. For that reason no reports have been made 
to the conference since the meeting of 1914. 

As soon as practieable after the defeat of Germany the work in the French archives 
was resumed. The work of editing and preparing the calendar for publication was 
also put in operation by the Department of Historical Research of the Carnegie 
Institution, and this important task is now nearing completion. 

The fund for calendaring this collection of archives concerning the history of the 
great Mississippi Basin was subscribed through the generosity of the following his- 
torical agencies: Alabama Department of Archives and History, Chicago Historical 
Society, Indiana State Historical Society, State Historical Society of Iowa, Kan- 
sas State Historical Society, Louisiana Historical Society, Michigan Historical 
Society, Mississippi State Department of Archives and History, State Historical 
Society of Missouri, Texas Historical Society, Wisconsin State Historical Society, 
and Clarence M. Burton. 

The sums subscribed by each contributor appear in the report of the committee 
of 1913. In round numbers $3,000 was subscribed. There is now in the hands of 
the treasurer of the committee $355.69, and that amount is sufficient to complete 
the work. 

The annual reports of the committee have made frequent mention of the expert 
service freely extended by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. We can not 
express too often our obligation to Dr. J. F. Jameson and Mr. W. G. Leland of the 
Department of Historical Research of that institution—to Doctor Jameson for 
securing the cooperation of the Carnegie Institution, and to Mr. Leland, the repre- 
sentative of the committee in direct charge of the work in Paris. 

Your committee recommends the acceptance of the proposal of the Carnegie 
Institution to edit, publish, and distribute the calendar. In no other way could 
that part of our undertaking be done quite so well. The details of the proposal 
will be presented to the conference at this meeting by a representative of the 
Department of Historical Research of the Carnegie Institution. The progress of 
editing, publishing, and distributing the calendar will be reported to the conference 
by those having in charge that part of the work. 

May we again express our great obligation to the historical agencies which 
made possible the success of our undertaking by making liberal and unselfish sub- 
scriptions to the calendar fund. 

The principle of cooperative work along such lines is most helpful and beneficial 
to the societies engaging in it. Such work should by all means be continued. 

We hope we may be permitted to say in this final report that the successful com- 
pletion under the direction of this conference of the work of calendaring the French 
archives, in so far as they concern the Mississippi Valley, is of very great impor- 
tance to the historians of the country. To have undertaken and finished a task of 
such magnitude is an achievement worthy of the highest praise. 


134 | AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


It has been a privilege for the committee to act as the representative of the confer- 
ence. You have made our duties most pleasant and agreeable. We thank you for 
giving us the opportunity toserve you. We report that our work is done, request the 
release of the committee, and file this our final report. 


Respectfully submitted. 
Row.anpD, Chairman, 


WorruHINGTON C. Forp. 
Evarts B. GREENE. 

J. F. JAMESON. 

B. F. SHAMBAUGH. 
C. BARKER. 


DrEcEemMBER 28, 1920. 


The following is a partial list of the delegates present at the session: 
Abbot, Mrs. Louis A., State historian, District of Columbia. 
Ambler, Chas. H., West Virginia University. 

Belote, Theodore T., United States National Museum. 

Bond, Beverly W., jr., University of Cincinnati. 

Boyd, Wm. K., Trinity College, New York. 

Callahan, J. M., West Virginia University. 

Clark, William Bell, Pennsylvania War History Commission. 
Conlan, Mrs. Michael, Oklahoma Historical Society. 

Connor, R. D. W., North Carolina Historical Commission. 
Doane, Rev. R. B., North Carolina. 

Eaton, Allen, Russell Sage Foundation. 

Eckenrode, H. Z., Southern Historical Society. 

Fitzpatrick, J. C., Library of Congress. 

Ford, Worthington C., Massachusetts Historical Society. 
Fox, Dixon Ryan, New York State Historical Association. 
Fuller, George N., Michigan Historical Commission. 

Godard, George S., Connecticut State Library. 

Handman, M. S., University of Texas. 

Heckel, A. K., Lafayette College. 

Hoover, T. N., Ohio Historical Commission on War Material. 
House, R. B., North Carolina Historical Commission. 
Husband, W. W., Vermont Historical Society. 

Jenison, Marguerite E., Illinois Historical Library. 

Latané, Edith, Mary Baldwin Seminary, Staunton, Va. 
Latané, John H., Johns Hopkins University. 

Latané, Lucy T., Maryland War Records Commission. 
Leland, Waldo G., Carnegie Institution of Washington. 
McKinley, Albert E., Pennsylvania War History Commission. 
Paine, Mrs. Clara S., Mississippi Valley Historical Association. 
Palsits, Victor H., New York Public Library. 

Parish, John C., State Historical Society of Iowa. 

Parker, H. Gilbert, Office of adjutant general of Delaware. 
Pease, T. C., Illinois State Historical Library. 


SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 135 


Robinson, Morgan P., Virginia State Library. 

Rowland, Dunbar, Mississippi Historical Society. 

Ryan, Daniel J., National Catholic War Council. 

Schafer, Joseph, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. 

Schlesinger, Arthur M., State University of Iowa. 

Shoemaker, Floyd C., State Historical Society of Missouri. 

Sioussat, Mrs. Albert, Maryland Society of the Colonial Dames of 

America. 
Steiner, Bernard C., Enoch Pratt Free Library, Baltimore, Md. 
Spaulding, Col. Oliver L., Historical Branch, General Staff, United 
States Army. 

Stokes, Horace W., Frederick A. Stokes Co., publishers. 

Sullivan, James, New York State Historical Association. 

Vincent, John Martin, Johns Hopkins University. 

Wilson, J. Scott, Virginia War History Commission. 

Upon consultation with the handbook committee, which has laid 
plans and begun work on the preparation of a handbook of the socie- 
ties, it has seemed best not to publish in the proceedings at this time 
the data secured in November and December, 1920, from approxi- 
mately 90 of the societies. This material will be used by the commit- 
tee in the preparation of the more comprehensive publication. 


PAPERS AND DISCUSSION. 


PROGRESS IN THE COLLECTION OF WAR RECORDS BY STATE WAR 
HISTORY ORGANIZATIONS! 


By Kart SInGEWALD 
Secretary, Maryland War Records Commission 


The article, ‘‘The collection of State-war records,” by Franklin F. 
Holbrook, secretary of the Minnesota War Records Commission, 
printed in the American Historical Review, October, 1919, is a con- 
spectus of the origin, organization, and activities of the various State 
war history agencies, although not arranged by States, but topically. 

The collection of material relating to the war was carried on, of 
course, to some extent from the beginning of the war by all active 
State historical commissions, historical societies, libraries, etc. The 
compilation of war records in a thorough way, however, in most cases 
could not be done by such institutions without a great extension of 
their activities, requiring special appropriation and extra staff. Those 
agencies that were able to take up the undertaking in a thorough way 
from the beginning were in a most fortunate and advantageous posi- 


1In connection with the preparation of this paper, questionnaires were sent to all of the States 
addressed to the agencies known to be engaged in war history work. Replies were reeeived from 20 States. 
Some information was already in hand in regard to the work in most of the States. All comparisons 
made in this paper must be qualified as being based upon the incompu.ete information available. 


136 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


tion. States reporting systematic collection of material during the 
war include Alabama, Iowa, New York, and Ohio. 

General realization of the importance of the compilation of war 
records, and financial provision for this purpose, came after the first 
year of our participation in the war. Action was largely through the 
State councils of defense, pursuant to recommendation by the Coun- 
cil of National Defense, at the instance of the National Board for 
Historical Service. In a few States the war history committees 
appointed were to function independently, but in the great majority 
of States they were to act through or in conjunction with existing 
State agencies—historical commissions, historical societies, State libra- 
ries, or universities. 

The next stage was legislative action. In practically all of the 
States where the historical work was under way it was continued by 
legislative enactment and appropriation. At present nearly all of 
the States are engaged to some extent in the undertaking. A num- 
ber of the States are known to be working in a large way—with a 
comprehensive program and somewhat adequate facilities. These 
States are Alabama, California, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, 
Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, 
New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, and 
Wisconsin. 

In carrying on the undertaking the State agencies very generally 
have enlisted county and local cooperation. In most cases special 
historical committees have been named, but local historical societies 
and libraries also have been utilized. In New York the act of April 
11,1919, provided for appointment of local historians by local ap- 
pointing boards. Approximately 1,500 appointments were author- 
ized thereby, and about 50 per cent have been made. In some 
States, including California, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, 
New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, appropriations 
for the local work have been made by local governments, usually 
small in amount—$100 to $500, but large amounts, in some cases; 
for instance, the city of Buffalo, $40,000. [Illinois reports that in sev- 
eral counties sufficient funds have been available to employ some one 
to take charge of the work. Pennsylvania states that local provision 
was made very generally either by public appropriation or by turn- 
ing over balances of welfare or welcome funds. In many of the 
States supplies have been furnished by the State office, and in a few 
States small allowances made for local expenses. 

The general experience with the local committees is that they are 
very uneven in their work. In the majority of cases the results are 
not very satisfactory. Large results are obtained only where some 
qualified person is found willing to give considerable time and atten- 
tion to the work. The following States report more than ordinary 


SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 137 


success in the local work: Illinois, a number of excellent county collec- 
tions and several published histories; Indiana, complete reports cover- 
ing the organizations as scheduled in Bulletin No. 10 from more 
than half of the 92 counties in the State; Michigan, county commit- 
tees working pretty generally; Pennsylvania, a considerable number 
of counties doing excellent work. Naturally, the importance of the 
local war history is recognized, and the compilation of the records 
taken up effectively, in greater degree where the counties and cities 
are of considerable size and importance. The city of Buffalo, for 
instance, appropriated $40,000 and bas published a war history. 

A. survey of war history work State by State would be of great 
interest, but is impracticable in this paper, both on account of limi- 
tation of space and of incompleteness of information in hand. It 
will be possible herein merely to discuss briefly the larger phases of 
the undertaking and to indicate roughly the progress made in some 
of the States. 

INDIVIDUAL MILITARY RECORDS 


In a few States, including New Hampshire and Rhode Island, 
record was kept systematically during the progress of the war of 
those who entered the military and naval forces. Generally, how- 
ever, this was not done, and the later efforts to compile State rosters 
have proven very difficult. 

No part of the war records work was so generally undertaken by 
the States as that of obtaining the records of the soldiers and sailors. 
In most of the States forms were prepared and campaigns were con- 
ducted with wide publicity. Cooperation of patriotic organizations 
was enlisted and local committees employed. 

In general, the success of these efforts has not been very marked. 
The indifference of the men has proven a serious obstacle. A few 
States report unusally large results. A statement from New Hamp- 
shire, as of March, 1920, reported 85 to 90 per cent obtained. In 
South Dakota, by act of legislature, the assessors were instructed to 
make a canvass throughout the State, without extra compensation, 
however. In this way, about one-third of the records were obtained. 
This was followed up by a systematic campaign through the schools, 
with good results. South Dakota now reports a roster containing 
names beyond the number credited to the State by the departments 
in Washington, but no statement is in hand of the percentage of 
records filled out. Maryland has obtained nearly one-half of the 
records. For Baltimore city, the percentage is over one-half, due 
largely to active cooperation by the police department. In Minne- 
sota, the administration of the bonus act was utilized as an opportunity 
to obtain the records. Minnesota reports over 80,000 records out of 
108,000 applying for the bonus. Pennsylvania reports over 37,000 


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138 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


in the State files, 45,000 in the hands of the Philadelphia committees, 
and thousands in the hands of other local committees. In Philadel- 
phia canvass was made by the police department. 

California has pressed the collection of these records, especially 
through the local committees. Results are very incomplete, but 
arrangements have been made for tie American Legion to conduct 
a systematic campaign whereby it is hoped to obtain most of the 
records. Kentucky plans binding the service record sheets for each 
county into a volume, to be placed in the county clerk’s office when 
completed and to be protected by being recorded as permanent 
county records. 

Special attention, naturally, has been given to the compilation of 
rosters and records of those who died in the service, and of those 
who received decorations and citations. Most of the States have 
this part of the work pretty well up. 

In most of the States effort has been made to obtain—along with 
the records—photographs and such material as diaries, letters, and 
narratives. Results obtained in this way have not been conspicu- 
ously large. Illinois, however, reports a large collection of soldiers’ 
letters, through special effort and cooperation of organizations such 
as the Service Star Legion. New York has collected thousands of 
letters through a clipping service. Pennsylvania reports 8,000 pho- 
tographs, thousands of letters, and a few diaries. 

The entire aspect of this matter of individual military records was 
changed greatly when it became assured that the departments in 
Washington would furnish to the several States abstracts of the serv- 
ice records. The Adjutant General of the Army was given an 
appropriation for this purpose by the act of July 11,1919. Thus 
far the records of casualties have been sent to the States. A similar 
appropriation was made to the Bureau of Navigation, Navy Depart- 
ment, by the act of June 4, 1920. It is expected that the work will 
be completed by the end of the fiscal year. The Marine Corps, also, 
is preparing records for the States. 

These official records are being sent to the adjutants general of 
the States. A number of the States plan publication of military 
rosters. Such publication generally is to be by the adjutant general 
or in conjunction with his office. In view of these official records, 
some of the State war history agencies have concluded to leave the 
matter of the individual military records entirely with the adjutants 
general. It may be remarked, however, that the records furnished 
from Washington are brief abstracts of the service records, with very 
little of the further biographical information called for by the forms 
used by the State agencies. 

The basis followed by the War and Navy Departments in credit- 
ing men to the several States is the home addresses given at the time 


SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 139 


of entering the service. The records furnished to a State, therefore, 
will not include former residents who were living elsewhere at the 
time of entering the service, nor persons living in the State at the 
time of entering the service, but who gave their addresses in the 
State of their former residence and family connections. Moreover, of 
course these records will not include those who served in the mili- 
tary forces of the Allies. Pennsylvania, it may be mentioned, reports 
having obtained a list of 3,583 men from the State who entered the 
British service. 

In addition to the problems suggested in the last paragraph, there 
are other questions of inclusion arising in compiling the military ros- 
ter to include thos2 who served on the Mexican border in 1916. A 
little nearer is the case of service in the National Guard on Federal 
duty after April 6, 1917,but prior to the imcorporation of the Na- 
tional Guard into the United States Army, August 5, 1917. The 
United States Public Health Service, in terms of the act of Congress, 
was made a part of ‘‘the military forces of the United States.” <A 
part of the personnel of the Lighthouse Service, by virtue of act of 
Congress, was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Navy Department, 
but is not counted as part of the Navy. Even the United States 
Coast Guard records are not in the possession of the Navy Depart- 
ment, although the entire personnel was enrolled in the Naval Reserve 
Force. 

Altogether, unless the State roster is based simply upon service in 
the United States Army, Navy, or Marine Corps according to the 
official records furnished from Washington, the task of compilation 
will be very difficult and the results at best not entirely complete. 
The only way to obtain the names not included in the records sent 
from Washington is by building up a State roster systematically 
from local sources. 


MILITARY UNITS AND ESTABLISHMENTS 


Much attention is being given to the collection of material relating 
to military units composed largely of men from the respective States, 
and to camps and other military establishments located in the State 
during the war. 

There are, of course, two sources of such material—(1) local sources; 
(2) the records in Washington. In respect to military units, the rec- 
ords obtainable from what may be termed local sources include: 

Histories. (a) Manuscript histories of nearly all units were pre- 
pared under official direction before demobilization. These are usu- 
ally short and sketchy. (6) Printed histories of many units have 
been published, in many cases under the auspices of veterans’ organ- 
izations of the respective units. 


140 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Diaries, narratives, etc., by members of the units. 

Copies of official papers—orders, reports, maps, etc.—retained by 
members of the units. 

Newspapers or news bulletins issued by the units. 

Photographs and other exhibits. 

A number of States have been very active in collecting such mate- 
rial from the returned service men. It may be mentioned that 
Pennsylvania has obtained copies of a large part of the orders and 
messages of the Seventy-ninth Division. 

The records in Washington are, of course, of prime importance. 
Every unit, upon demobilization, was required to pack up all of its 
records and ship them to The Adjutant General in Washington. 
Here should be complete sets of official papers and documents of 
the units, whereas records collected from local sources are generally 
fragmentary. Thus far, very little use has been made of the records 
in Washington by the State agencies. The photographs taken by 
the Signal Corps of the Army are the most important general source 
of photographs. 

In the case of camps and military establishments, the classes of 
material and the sources are similar to those of military units. A 
number of States report considerable collections of historical reports, 
camp newspapers, photographs, etc. Here, again, there has been 
little use as yet of the great store of records in Washington. 


[INDIVIDUAL CIVILIAN RECORDS 


A number of States, in the compilation of the individual military 
records, have included records of those who served with the military 
or naval forces as workers under the welfare organizations—Red 
Cross, Y. M. C. A., ete. 

Maryland has undertaken on a more comprehensive basis the com- 
pilation of individual civilian records. The purpose has been to in- 
clude the names of all Marylanders who rendered service of more 
than ordinary importance in relation to the war in a civilian capacity, 
whether in Government position, in industry, profession, relief activ- 
ities, etc. The index includes the officers and leading workers of the 
principal war agencies in the State and in the several counties. 
Some idea of the degree of inclusion may be given by the statement 
that the index contains about 2,500 names for the entire State, as 
compared with about 62,000 in the military service. The persons 
whose names are in this index are requested to fill out a form of record 
and to furnish reports of their work. 

California, also, has given special attention to obtaining full ac- 
counts of services of individual] Californians in relation to the war in 
a civilian capacity. Some of the local committees have made use of 
questionnaires for this purpose. Mention should be made, also, of 


SIXTEENTH ANNUAL OONFERENCE OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 141 


Virginia’s plan of selecting a roll of 100 Virginians who rendered the 
most distinguished war serviee. The records of the 100 will be pub- 
lished in the war history. 


NONMILITARY WAR AGENCIES AND. ACTIVITIES 


Apart from the distinetly military activities, there were a number 
of agencies of prime importance conspicuously known as war agencies 
and activities, such as the Council of National Defense, War Indus- 
tries Board, Shipping Board, Railroad Administration, War Loan 
Organization, Feod Administration, Fuel Administration, American 
Red Cross, and the seven big welfare agencies operating under the 
supervision of the Commission on Training Camp Activities. These, 
however, are only the most conspicuous. The number of agencies, 
emergency and permanent, governmental and private, national and 
local, performing services of great importance in relation to the war is 
very large. Then, if we look beyond the more important agencies and 
activities, it is a fact that practically every organization and individ- 
ual in the country did something in the general war effort. 

In the endeavor to compile the war records, therefore, the problem 
is ever present of how far to go. In the widest scope, anything and 
everything pertaining to the life and activities of the people during 
the war period is part of the war record. The question of what to 
include arises both in respect to what organizations and activities to 
cover, and also as to what classes of records to gather. 

In respect to organizations included, Pennsylvania has doubtless 
covered the field more extensively than any other State. About 
105,000 pieces of mail have been sent out to about 65 groups, the 
organizations covered including not only the important war agencies, 
but also churches, schools, libraries, clubs and societies, banks, insur- 
ance companies, industrial and commercial establishments. Some 
4,300 reports are in hand, including 1,081 reports from banking insti- 
tutions and 961 from industrial establishments. Indiana, also, has 
requested reports from churches, fraternal orders, clubs, banks and 
manufacturing establishments, with “fairly satisfactory” results. In 
most of the States, the matter of obtaining reports from individual 
local organizations, sueh as churches, schools, clubs, banks, etc., has 
been left to the local committees. 

In respect to material to be gathered, there is the broad general 
consideration that the State war history agencies are interested par- 
ticularly in material of special State concern. In the case, however, 
of activities within the State that are part of the operations of. or- 
ganizations of a national scope, the States are interested in material 
relating to the national organization, as well as in material especially 
concerning the particular State, 


142 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Most of the State war history agencies have sets of formal publi- 
cations of United States Government departments and services bear- 
ing on the war, whether collected specially or as part of the regular 
acquisitions of the institutions with which they are connected. The 
same is largely true of formal publications of the principal nongovern- 
mental agencies of national scope performing service in relation to 
the war. When it comes to lesser material, such as pamphlets, period- 
icals, bulletins, circulars, posters, etc., and to the publications of the 
hundreds of less important agencies, the State collections are neces- 
sarily fragmentary. Alabama engaged in collection from the begin- 
ning of the war, and reports a very complete set of all material issued 
by the principal war agencies. Iowa and Pennsylvania also have 
important collections of material. Texas reports over 1,500 pamph- 
lets relating to the war. The number of such publications issued 
altogether would run into the hundreds of thousands, 

The problems in respect to gathering material issued by agencies 
of national scope may be understood from a few illustrations. Any 
collecting agency would eagerly receive such important acquisitions 
as a set of publications of the Committee on Public Information, or 
the war bulletins of the American Red Cross, or of the Y. M. C. A. 
A complete set, however, of books, pamphlets, periodicals, bulletins, 
circulars, etc., issued by Red Cross during the war would fill 
several shelves. Then there is a vast quantity of material not relat- 
ing especially to the war, but of increased interest during the war. 
For instance, the bulletins of information and of instruction issued by 
the Department of Agriculture are regular publications, but during 
the war were of special use in stimulating food production. Publi- 
cations, also, of the hundreds of religious, professional, trade, and 
other organizations of national scope are of some interest from the 
standpoint of war history. There is certainly no clear line of limi- 
tation in regard to such material, and, as already remarked, the 
collection of such material by the State war history agencies is rather 
desultory. 

In regard to agencies and activities within the State, there is, of 
course, greater reason for systematic effort to make a complete col- 
lection of material. The distinctive effort in this field is to obtain 
historical reports, both of state-wide activities and of local activities. 
In a large percentage of cases it is necessary to have these reports 
specially prepared for the historical records. The reports by the 
States, generally, indicate a very fair measure of success along this 
line. Pennsylvania and Illinois have done especially well in obtain- 
ing reports from members of the draft boards. 

A number of the States are making special efforts to secure the 
deposit of files and records of war agencies in the war records col- 
lections. Some of the most important records were required to be 


SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 143 


shipped to Washington—notably, of the draft boards, Food Admin- 
istration, and Fuel Administration. Minnesota reports, however, 
having obtained the files relating to war activities of the Y. M.C. A., 
Y.W.C.A.,A.L.A., J. W. B., W.C.C.S., U. W. W.C., and some of the 
branch offices of the United States Employment Service in the State. 
Texas, also, reports a very fair measure of success in obtaining the 
files of war work organizations such as the Liberty loan, war savings, 
Red Cross, Y. M.C. A., Y. W.C. A., K. of C., W.C.C.S., and Salvation 
Army. Generally speaking, the most important files of war activi- 
ties within the States are those of the State councils of defense or 
committees of safety. These files, of course, are in official possession 
of the States, and in a number of cases have come into the custody of 
the war history agencies The files of the women’s section, Maryland 
Council of Defense, are an extremely valuable mass of material. The 
women’s section was an exceptionally efficient organization, coordi- 
nating all women’s activities in relation to the war, and the files con- 
taining regular, systematic reports of all departments and of the 
county chairmen, 
WAR INDUSTRIES 


The subject of war industries does not appear to have been taken 
up generally with any degree of thoroughness. In a number of 
States this is being left largely to the local committees. 

Pennsylvania, where the industrial contribution was probably the 
most marked, has gone further than any other State in the compila- 
tion of the records. By considerable effort and expense, a list was 
compiled in Washington of Pennsylvania firms having Government 
war contracts. There were 2,732 Pennsylvania firms having direct 
war contracts. Questionnaires were mailed to the firms on this list. 
In the case of the most important industrial establishments, this was 
followed up by personal visit and research. Reports are in hand 
from 961 establishments. Excellent reports have been received from 
nearly all of the important establishments. 

Illinois also reports having compiled a list of firms having war con- 
tracts, by assistance of the bureaus in Washington and of the Illinois 
Manufacturers Association. A questionnaire was sent out and a large 
percentage of returns received. Maryland, similarly, has compiled a 
list of firms, and is just sending out questionnaires. 


PHOTOGRAPHS, POSTERS, AND OTHER EXHIBITS 


A few words may be devoted especially to the subject of photo- 
graphs, posters, and other exhibits. Many of the States report large 
collections of photographs—of individuals, of military units, camps, 
or other military activities, and of civilian activities in relation to the 
war. Texas has acquired 15,000. 


144 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Posters are of two classes—those used generally throughout the 
country, and those of local origin. Those of the first class are, of 
course, the more conspicuous, but those of the second class are of 
greater significance for the State collections. Illinois reports a col- 
lection of about 800 posters; Indiana, ‘‘a complete collection for all 
of the State drives’; New York, a collection of all important posters; 
Pennsylvania, 866 posters; Texas reports a collection of about 2,000 
posters, broadsides, etc.—1,200 American, the rest foreign. The 
method of exchange has been utilized to good advantage. 

Only a few of the State war history agencies appear to have given 
much attention to the collection of other exhibits. Minnesota states 
that, in cooperation with the museum department of the historical 
society, a noteworthy collection has been gathered of war relics and 
mementos, including military equipment and insignia, service flags, 
etc. Ohio, also, reports a large collection of emblematical material. 


NEWSPAPERS 


Fortunately, libraries very generally preserve newspaper files. In 
most States, therefore, files of newspapers with state-wide circulation 
and of some of the local newspapers are to be found in State libraries, 
and files of most local newspapers in local libraries. New York, for 
instance, reports that the State library maintains files of the princi- 
pal newspaper of each county and of the leading city newspapers. 

Most of the State agencies have made special efforts to obtain files 
for the war period of as many as possible of the newspapers published 
in the State. Such files, however, are difficult to obtain. Very few 
newspapers keep back copies other than a single file of their own, 
and a great many small local newspapers lack even a single complete 
file. California reports that several county committees have submit- 
ted complete files of local newspapers. The State war history depart- 
ment has over 50,000 clippings of war interest. Illinois has obtained 
a number of complete or partial files for 1917-18 besides the files 
regularly kept by the library. Indiana reports special effort, with 
fairly satisfactory results, to secure a complete file of at least one 
newspaper of each county for 1917-18. Items of war interest are 
clipped and mounted. 

In addition to general newspapers, some attention has been given 
to the collection of special newspapers and periodicals. Ohio, espe- 
cially, reports a very large collection of religious periodicals, trade, 
labor, and agricultural papers, and racial newspapers. 

Generally speaking, excellent progress has been made in the work 
of the State war history agencies, but a great deal remains to be done 
in the collection of records, apart from the matter of publication. 
In California, the war history department is to be discontinued as 


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SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 145 


a separate department of the State historical survey commission in 
January, 1921. In some States, on the other hand, the increased 
facilities necessary for effective work have but recently been pro- 
vided. In most of the States the work is proeeeding actively, with 
prospect of continuance for some time to come. 

There are it may be mentioned, a number of important special 
collections of material that are of direct interest to the States. These 
include the war records compiled by the National Catholic War Coun- 
cil, by the American Jewish Committee, and by the denominations 
of the Protestant Church. A description of such collections, however, 
is not within the scope of this paper. 


PROGRESS IN THE COLLECTION OF WAR HISTORY RECORDS BY 
STATE WAR HISTORY ORGANIZATIONS 


By Apert E, 


Secretary of the Pennsylvania War History Commission 


The topic of to-day embraces plans and suggestions for war histories 
by official State bodies. It excludes on one side the publication plans 
of the War and Navy Departments and other branches of the National 
Government, and on the other the more or less elaborate plans for 
more or less accurate histories by private publishing concerns. 

Consideration of plans for publication came almost as early as the 
realization of the necessity for collecting data relating to the war 
history of our several States. In some cases publication was held 
consciously in view from the start. Thus the State Historical Society 
of Iowa stated in its publication ‘Iowa and War” (No. 19, January, 
1919, p. 3), “Collection without compilation is fruitless, and compila- 
tion without publication is useless. The collection of the materials 
of war history should accompany the writing of that history, and 
the writing of the history should accompany the collection of the 
materials.” 

With this concept of the interrelation of collection, compilation, and 
publication, the Iowa society proceeded to outline a tentative plan 
for a history of Iowa’s part in the World War, and also prepared a 
similar outline for a local or county history. At least four other 
States—Minnesota, Virginia, California, and Pennsylvania—have 
issued somewhat similar outlines, either for local or State histories, or 
both, which in some cases were based upon the Iowa outline. 

It early became apparent that there were really three classes of 
historical material in which a State might be interested: (1) Service 
records of individuals, including casualties and citations in the mili- 
tary and naval service; (2) histories, narrative and documentary, of 
units in the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps, composed largely of 

97244°—25——10 


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146 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


citizens of the interested State; (3) the internal history of the State 
in war time, including the operations of the National Government in 
the State, the activities of the State government, and the work of 
civilian individuals and organizations. Plans for publication in the 
several States from which reports have been received differ greatly 
in the attitude toward these three classes and in the agencies to which 
were intrusted the work of preparation for publication. 

Individual service records.—At the outset of their work many of 
the war history bodies in the several States, basing their decision 
upon the experience of the Civil War, prepared service record blanks 
to be filled in by soldiers’ families or, after return from the field, by 
the soldiers themselves. Such records might admittedly be inaccu- 
rate or incomplete, but they might contain material not included in 
The Adjutant General’s Office, and until the records of the latter 
office were available they would be valuable for local historical 
purposes. 

The action of Congress in the summer of 1919 in providing funds 
for sending transcripts of service records to the States and in direct- 
ing that these records be sent to the adjutant general in each State 
has had several influences. In the first place, it promises to place at 
the disposal of the States the service records of their citizens much 
more quickly and at less expense to the States than was anticipated. 
It has tended to discourage the distribution, filling out, and collec- 
tion of the local record blanks within the States, and it has placed in 
the hands of the adjutant general of each State the personal records 
of its citizens. 

It is but natural, therefore, from the character of the usual duties 
of a State adjutant general and the records now being received from 
Washington, that plans for publication of individual war records 
should center largely in the offices of the adjutants general. The 
following statement from Delaware illustrates this policy: 

The Governor of Delaware has requested the adjutant general of this State to col- 
lect all available data in regard to the part played by the service men of this State 
in the World War, which includes biographies and photographs of the men who made 
the suprenie sacrifice and the personal, family, and military records of the remainder 
of the men, and at the coming session of the general assembly next month to intro- 
duce such a bill to put in book form the above information, with, of course, separate 
chapters for those who died or were wounded or cited. 


Indiana reports that the manuscript of a “gold star volume” is now 
ready for the press; and that the adjutant general will prepare for 
publication a State roster containing the names of all Indiana service 
men and the units to which they were attached. Iowa, with its 
roster commission, composed of the governor and the adjutant gen- 
eral, organized by act of assembly early in 1919, is probably better 
prepared than any other State to push the work of publication as 


SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 147 


soon as the records are received from Washington. The adjutant 
general of Illinois has in contemplation the publication of a roster, 
which will occupy, according to estimates, 42 volumes. Missouri 
has a similiar work under consideration. For the two largest States 
—New York and Pennsylvania—the publication of an adequate ros- 
ter is a stupendous task. Our presiding officer, Doctor Sullivan, 
estimates that 100 volumes would be necessary for the Empire State’s 
records, and Pennsylvania’s would not fall far behind that figure. 

It thus appears that publication plans for individual service records 
are largely in the hands of the respective adjutants general, and 
that the ultimate decision upon publication is dependent upon the 
speed at which records are received from Washington (on December 
1, 1919, only 11 per cent of the Army records had been received), 
upon the force at the disposal of the adjutants general for compilation 
and comparison, and upon the appropriation of funds for publication. 

Histories of combatant units in which States are largely interested.— 
Most interest naturally centers in those Army units into which the 
State militia went. The militia companies and regiments had been 
a matter of local pride before the World War; their records up to 1917 
are preserved in the offices of the adjutants general of the several 
States; their members were anxious to bring back with them an ade- 
quate record of what their units accomplished. Hence local patriot- 
ism combined with what is relatively an abundance of historical data 
makes the preparation and publication of unit histories of the militia 
comparatively a simple matter. Illinois has already sent to the press 
a history of the Thirty-third Division, prepared by Col. Frederick L. 
Huidekoper, who was division adjutant. The history will comprise 
three volumes, of which the first will contain a narrative history of 
division operations, and the other two will be devoted to maps and 
reports. ‘Twenty thousand copies of the first volume will be dis- 
tributed free to members of the division. An appropriation of 
$50,000 was made for this publication. In a similar manner the 
States of Michigan and Wisconsin made appropriations for a history 
of the Thirty-second Division. 

But far more difficult is the preparation of a history of the units 
into which the selective service men entered. The men had no pre- 
vious historical or personal associations with the unit; the officers 
were drawn from all over the Union; and the men themselves, or the 
officers did not usually show the same interest in bringing back the 
records of the units which is so apparent in the militia divisions and 
regiments. While a number of regimental and divisional organiza- 
tions of the selective service units have been formed, and a consid- 
erable body of publications has been privately printed, yet to the 
writer’s knowledge there is not as yet any definite plan for official 
State publications relating to any of these units, 


148 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


With regard to the agencies directing the publication of unit his- 
tories, it seems true that this work is not considered so purely a duty 
of the adjutants general as are the individual service records. And it 
is to be hoped that adequate historical supervision and editorship will 
be retained in each State over the preparation and publication of 
such unit histories. 

The regularly established or specially created historical bodies in 
the several States have taken as their peculiar field the collection, 
compilation, and in some cases, the publication of matter relating to 
the internal history of the State in war time. As Mr. Singewald has 
pointed out, these bodies have principally bent their energies to col- 

‘lecting material, and few of them are ready to-day to announce plans 

for publication. This reluctance may be due partly to the present 
incomplete character of their collections, partly to the absence of 
available funds for editorial purposes, partly to the lack of the ‘‘leave 
to print’”’ which is given to most of the regularly constituted State de- 
partments, and partly to the unwillingness of legislatures to commit 
the States to a regular plan of war history publications. To these 
reasons may be added an indifference to the history of the war which 
we have all found to exist in many quarters. 

The State Historical Society of Iowa, with its funds for publica- 
tion, its ability to secure trained investigators and writers, and its 
determination to collect, compile, and publish, is more favorably 
situated than any other State. Within the last month it has issued 
the first of its Iowa Chronicles of the World War, a volume upon 
Welfare Campaigns in Iowa, by M. L. Hansen. Four other manu- 
scripts are ready for the printer: Welfare Work in Iowa, The Red 
Cross in Iowa, The United States Food Adminstration in Iowa, and 
The Sale of War Bonds in Iowa. ‘The topics selected for this series 
will follow in a general way the subjects proposed in the Tentative 
Outline For a State War History; but no set order will be adhered 
to, and modifications may be made from time to time. 

Other definite plans for publication include a manuscript already 
completed for the Indiana Historical Commission upon the history of 
the five Liberty loans in Indiana, and two volumes proposed by the 
war records section of the Illinois State Historical Library, dealing 
respectively with “Statistics relating to Illinois and the war’ and 
“Documents relating to Illinois and the war.”’ 

More indefinite projects or simply suggestions are as follows: New 
York, a three-volume work, including general material under subject 
headings, and material arranged by counties, towns, incorporated vil- 
lages and cities throughout the State outside of New York City. Min- 
nesota, an eight-volume history, including three devoted to aroster, two 
to military matters, one to material resources, one to home defense and 
civilian morale, and one a ‘‘narrative summary of the whole story.” 


SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 149 


Maryland, three volumes—one to be a roster, one military history, 
and one the record of nonmilitary activities. 

From these facts concerning actual plans for publication certain 
deductions are possible. 

1. Owing to the character of the records and their deposition in 
the offices of the adjutants general of the several States it seems 
logical that the preparation and publication of individual service 
records should be left in the hands of these officials. This is partic- 
ularly true in the larger States, where a very extensive force and 
great expenditure of money will be necessary before publication can 
be completed. 

2. There may be some competition between the State adjutants 
general and the State historical bodies with reference to the com- 
pilation and publication of unit histories in which the State is inter- 
ested. Such histories should be prepared and edited in the light of 
the best historical scholarship. A wealth of information is now, or 
soon will be, at the disposal of historical scholars for the preparation 
of such histories. Whether the actual work of publication is done by 
the adjutants general or by purely historical bodies, there ought to 
be cooperation in order to secure an historically accurate account. 
Such unit histories should, of course, be well illustrated with photo- 
graphs and maps. 

3. The histories of civilian activities require research skill of the 
highest character, including the ability to use with discrimination 
newspapers, current correspondence, and personal reminiscences. 
Such work can best be directed by regularly established historical 
organizations. 

4. Omitting from our view individual service records, the follow- 
ing is presented as an outline for a State’s war history in moderate 
compass. 

Military and naval participation of the State, including the history 
of units in which the State is most interested; the history of the 
preparation and organization of the selective-service machinery; and 
the United States camps and other establishments within the State 
limits. 

Economic participation in the war, including agriculture and food 
production, industries, transportation and communication, war finance, 
trade and commerce. 

Civilian welfare and morale work, including financial campaigns 
for welfare work, the actual conduct of welfare work, the war activ- 
ities of professional classes, educational organizations, religious bodies, 
and means for maintaining public morale through the press, patriotic 
organizations, and other means. 

A summary in one volume containing a general review of the State’s 
contributions to the victory of the country. 


150 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Such an analysis can readily be extended by larger States into a 
considerable series of volumes, while in the smaller communities it 
eould be placed in three or four volumes. 

The paper presented by Mr. Joseph Schafer, of the State Historical 
Society of Wisconsin, dealt with the subject of ‘‘Coordination of his- 
torical societies within the State.’’ He told of cooperation in Wiscon- 
sin between the State Historical Society of Wisconsin and the county 
and other local agencies, by which the State is being mapped out 
and subjected to an intensive historical survey particularly along the 
line of settlement and land tenure, a project frequently referred to as 
the Wisconsin Domesday Book. This topic has been discussed in 
print by Mr. Schafer in the Wisconsin Magazine of History for Sep- 
tember and December, 1920, and a third paper will be published by 
the Minnesota Historical Society. 

Mr. Worthington C. Ford, of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 
opened the discussion. He said that there was little to discuss in the 
propositions so clearly laid down by the speakers. The plans and 
methods described seemed pertinent and adequate, worthy of trial 
and application. The conditions of historical societies in the East 
and the West were different, too different to be brought into a com- 
mon rule. In the West the State historical society is the model, but 
in the East the private society, incorporated but not aided by the 
State, still prevails. There are also the questions of age and oppor- 
tunity. The account given by Mr. Schafer of material permitting 
the history of almost every acre in his State from its first survey to 
be related made the mouth water, for there is no such material in 
the older communities. In Massachusetts, for example, grants were 
made to townships and to individuals, but in such general terms as 
to defy exact description or location. Then, too, the history of the 
eastern conmunities has become fixed in the local history of more 
than half a century ago, ponderous volumes, compiled on no method, 
by writers inexperienced in historical presentation, and intended to 
laud the town and its people irrespective of its relative importance 
among the towns of the State or section. Such volumes are distin- 
guished rather by what they omit than what they contain; and the 
same dreary details, crudely thrown together and connected by little 
sequence or relation, have made that form of history distasteful. 
Later came commercialized history, compiled for personal reasons 
and made possible by those willing to pay for notice which they 
could have in no other way. Professor Turner has shown in his 
“Frontier in American History” how negligible for historical purposes 
the State boundaries are; they rather confuse, if observed, for being 
artificial they do not mean distinctions in race, territory, or natural 
conditions. So the eastern town history indicates little of the gen- 
eral questions of institutions, people, or economy. - Genealogy is not 


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SIXTEENTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF HISTORICAL SOCIETIES 151 


race; a farm is not apt to be a type; and a township is not a national 
unit unless historically treated by a master. I except two works 
which can well be taken as examples of what local history can be: 
Three Episodes of New England History, by Charles Francis Adams, 
and The History of the Town of Southampton (N. Y.). by James 
Truslow Adams. 

In Massachusetts alone there are more than 300 societies engaged 
in collecting or in handling historical material. Hardly a town of 
size is without its historical society, busily engaged in collecting what 
it can, and eagef to prove its right to exist by a publication, more or 
less occasional, and naturally of widely varying merit. In the wish to 
introduce some method into this active ferment, the Bay State League 
of Historical Societies was formed and now welcomes at stated times 
in the year delegates from the 75 societies that have become mem- 
bers. Historical pilgrimages to various towns, a light spread, a paper 
of not too solid content, and social intercourse serve to create a spirit 
of solidarity, and it is hoped this spirit will be developed further so as 
to give the means of directing local activities and even of control- 
ling publications. This would prevent the duplication of publication, 
waste of funds in printing the trivial or unimportant, and introduce 
better and more uniform practices in preparing material for the press. 
At present the high cost of printing acts as a safety valve, checking 
a natural tendency to print merely for the sake of printing. 

The favorable drift of societies toward combination and union has 
been somewhat modified, if not checked, by the World War. For- 
merly each society gathered its books and manuscripts of local origin 
and had a modest museum containing subjects few in number but 
clothed with local interest and with pertinency to the real objects of 
a museum. Each town could show something different from what 
could be seen elsewhere. Owing to the war these little collections 
have been swamped by war relics and become ‘‘standardized.” But 
a German helmet, fragment of a shell, a gun or war medal has little 
pertinency to local or State history. The effect has been to revivify 
local phases of history. Each town, institution, or company is , 
intent upon getting what may tend to glorify its part in the war. © 
This has always been the effect of war—to cultivate the local histori- 
cal interest. What is wanted is to encourage progress toward gen- 
eral history. Mr. Ford doubted if this could be accomplished for 
some years, so strong had the local feeling become. Each State, 
town, and institution must get out its ‘‘war records’”’ before due 
attention will be given to general history, and to exert a supervising 
influence in the East will be difficult. This should not hinder at- . 
tempts toward that end. A State historical society is in a better 
situation to accomplish good in control than where the State takes 
no active part in historical study or in supporting a historical activity; 


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152 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


but it yet remains to be proved that the incorporated society is less 
efficient in the main lines than a State organization, and it is less 
under direction, less easily influenced. 

The secretary of the conference urged the importance and value 
of federation of historical agencies within each State and Province 
of the United States and Canada. Mrs. Albert Sioussat, of the 
National Society of Colonial Dames, and Mr. George S. Godard, of 
Connecticut, commented on the subject of the relation of patriotic 
societies to such federations. Mr. Godard mentioned the work 
which such societies had done in listing the old homes of the early 
Connecticut settlers. Mr. James Sullivan spoke on the forms which 
such cooperation had taken in the State of New York in regional 
leagues of lecal historical societies. He called attention to the 
Federation of Historical Societies of the Genesee County in the 
western part of New York State; the Mohawk Valley Historical 
Association, which is a league of all of the local historical societies 
in the Mohawk Valley; and the contemplated leagues such as were 
being planned in Long Island, t he lower and upper Hudson valleys, 
the Champlain district, and the like. 


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IV. CONFERENCE ON ECONOMIC HISTORY 


Washington, December 29, 1920 


153 


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CONFERENCE ON ECONOMIC HISTORY 


Note.—This conference was held after a luncheon at the New Ebbitt Hotel on Wed- 
nesday, December 29, 1920. It afforded several brief oe and an abstract which 
are sufliciently significant to be included in the printed records of the association. 


THE RECOGNITION OF ECONOMIC HISTORY AS A DISTINCT SUBJECT 
By Cuive Day 


Economic history first received prominent recognition as a distinct 
subject in this country in 1892, when W. J. Ashley was called to 
Harvard and given the title of professor of economic history. 

An examination of the prospectus of courses of American colleges 
and universities 10 years later, which was far from covering the whole 
field, but included most of the institutions of prominence, showed 
that courses in economic history were offered in 43 institutions. As 
a rule a single course was given combining the economic: history of 
England and of the United States. Sometimes the economic history 
of those countries was treated separately, and occasionally a course 
was offered on some special aspect of economic history—commerce, 
colonization, or industry. The total number of courses given was 68. 

An examination of the announcements of these same institutions 
in 1920 showed that 9 had dropped the course in economic history. 
The total number of courses given in the subject was 73. The in- 
crease in the courses given had not kept pace with the increase in 
courses given in other subjects. 

There are indications, however, that the attention given to 
economic history had increased not only absolutely but relatively. 
Courses which do not bear the title economic history include a 
consideration of the subject. Notably is this true of courses given 
in the department of history, according to the description of these 
courses given in the prospectus. 

Economic history, if we can trust this evidence, is being studied 
more extensively than ever, but it is being studied in connection 
with other subjects, with which it is fused. The indications that it is 
being absorbed by other subjects raises the question whether it does 
or does not deserve recognition as a distinct subject. 

In elementary instruction I believe the prevailing tendency is 
wholesome and should be encouraged. Students should be intro- 


duced to an understanding of economic development by a study 
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156 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


of economic facts in relation to facts of another kind but of the 
same time and place. The divorce of economic and political history 
has been harmful to both. 

At acertain stage in the course of instruction the need arises for 
specialization, and then the study of economic history by itself is profit- 
able and should be encouraged. In advanced work, courses in this 
subject offer an opportunity for training in method which can not so 
effectively be supplied by the study of any other subject. 

To the student of economics the work in economic history offers 
the most effective means to acquire that ‘‘historical point of view” 
which is so intangible as to defy definition, but which is indispensable 
to any sound work in social science. 

To the student of history the work in economic history offers con- 
nection with a social science which insists that facts are useful only 
as they lead to generalizations. Some corrective is needed for the 
worship of the bare fact, which is apt to be inculcated in some 
stages of historical training. Some experience should be afforded in 
those processes of historical synthesis which involve general hypoth- 
eses and lead to general formulas. For purposes of this kind, the 
subject of economic history is peculiarly fitted. 


THE FIELD FOR THE TEACHING OF ECONOMIC HISTORY IN COLLEGES 
AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 


By Assorr Payson UsHER 


Although a number of colleges have separated the teaching of the 
economic history of the United States from the teaching of the eco- 
nomic history of Europe, it is becoming common to find instruction 
in economic history divided into two semester courses, concerned re- 
spectively with the economic history of England or Europe and with 
the economic history of the United States. A course in the economic 
history of the United States is frequently given in institutions which 
offer no instruction in the economic history of Europe, and at 
times such a course is offered to undergraduates in colleges which 
provide excellent facilities for the study of European conditions by 
graduate students. On the whole, however, the two courses are 
closely associated, constituting a consecutive year’s work. 

Economic history makes a wide appeal to the interest of the pub- 
lic at the present time, and this disposition to give more attention to 
the subject can be utilized if its intrinsic difficulties are not forced on 
the students. The place of the course in the curriculum will thus 
depend ultimately upon the purposes and ideals of the instructor— 
it will become a large and important course if it is not made too 
severe; it will be a small course pursued by graduates and seniors of 
high standing if it is given with sumptuous critical scholarship and 
with equal emphasis upon all the phases of the subject. 


CONFERENCE ON ECONOMIC HISTORY 157 


Some difficulties can be eliminated by restricting the introductory 
course in the history of Europe to the period of the Industrial Revo- 
lution, leaving all discussion of medieval conditions to the advanced 
course. This poliey has been very generally adopted. But from the 
larger point of view this is not the best solution of the problem. A 
course that omits all discussion of conditions prior to 1750 foregoes 
by necessity all possibility of its largest usefulness. The contrast 
between modern and medieval conditions is the most stimulating 
interpretative material in the field of economic history, and, if we 
were to presume that introductory courses should be dominated by 
general interpretative problems, it would be essential to treat the 
Middle Ages at sufficient length to bring out the chief features of 
difference between the social organization of that peried and modern 
times. The public and the general student body are concerned with 
economic history only in so far as it bears significantly upon the 
judgment of the large issues of social organization raised by the 
radical groups. There is in economic history so little of the dramatic 
and heroic interest that we can not wisely compete with political and 
military history in these appeals. Our strongest claim lies in the 
field of social philosophy. We must emphasize what Professor Far- 
nam called the laboratory facilities afforded by history to the social 
sciences. Economic history can throw light upon the worth of our 
existing social institutions, both by affording better appreciation of 
the existing structure and by stimulating comparison with other pos- 
sible orderings of society. The appeal made to history by the social- 
ists, too, places us under special obligations to deal critically with 
the large generalizations that have become current through socialistic 
efforts. Economic history, like all history, is not primarily a bare 
record of ascertained fact, but primarily a way of thinking about 
society. The mass of careful, critical work leads to conclusions and 
interpretations, and it would seem that in the end it will prove to be 
more important to make these results widely known than to teach 
the beginning class the factual detail of the recent period. 

In.so far as difficulties must be eliminated it is perhaps better to 
omit the harder features of the subject than to omit entirely a period 
like the Middle Ages. Many features of the economic history of the 
Middle Ages could not be presented with success in an introductory 
undergraduate course. Much in the history of commerce and agricul- 
ture must be omitted, but the general outlines of the industrial organ- 
ization of that period can be presented effectively—some appreciation 
of these generalities is, indeed, essential to any thorough treatmentof 
the Industrial Revolution. The predominant interest to-day in 
industry, rather than agriculture or commerce, makes it easier to 
attract the students to a study of industrial history than to economic 


158 AMFRICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


history in general. Division of the material by topics rather than by 
periods would thus strengthen the introductory course and add to its 
importance in the college curriculum. 

Within the last few years economic history has become an impor- 
tant subject in the curricula of business schools, more especially of the 
undergraduate schools. The function of the course is complex; it 
serves in part as general training of frankly nonvocational character, 
in part as grounding in facts and methods of direct vocational signifi- 
cance. The course is very closely related to the work in marketing, 
commercial geography, and business organization. It takes the place 
of the course in freshman history in the arts college, as there is seldom 
time for a purely general course in history. The students are corre- 
spondingly less developed than the average college students who elect 
the work in economic history. Much general training in methods of 
work must thus be done in connection with this course, and, like the 
course in freshman history, this becomes inevitably one of the pur- 
poses of the course. 

The work of the first term in the history of England and Europe 
differs little from work that might be offered in any arts college, but 
we are planning at Boston to coordinate the work on the history of 
the United States with the work in marketing and some of the other 
special courses offered by the department. Much of the general de- 
scription of the various industries can be presented in the course on 
economic history, leaving more time for the discussion of merchan- 
dizing problems in the course on marketing. The work in railroads 
and tariff problems can likewise be made more advanced by careful 
presentation of the historical background of the current issues. In 
both courses the students are given training in the handling of simple 
statistical material by graphic methods, using both arithmetic and the 
logarithmic scales. 

In view of the rapid increase in the registration of the business 
schools, these required courses in economic or commercial history are 
becoming numerically more important than the somewhat more ad- 
vanced courses in the arts colleges. They are thus the outstanding 
feature of the recent expansion of the field for the teaching of economic 
history, and it is likely that they may serve to emphasize the opportu- 
nity that lies before such elementary courses. The development of 
this work in the colleges has been influenced by the belief that it 
must needs be severe; it would seem that severity is not inevitable 
and unescapable. 

The secondary and especially the vocational schools present a possi- 
ble field, but the policy of extending instruction in economic history 
to schools of this grade can hardly be deemed well established in 
fact or theory. The benefits derived from the teaching of economic 
theory in the secondary schools are dubious, and economic history 


CONFERENCE ON ECONOMIC HISTORY 159 


ought to be classed with theory in connection with the problem of 
pedagogy. Some teachers have, no doubt, achieved success with 
economic history in the secondary schools. But is this subject really 
as important to these students as the subjects which it must displace 
wholly or in part? More instruction in language might be given, 
more instruction in geography, science, or mathematics. It is a deli- 
cate question, and it is perhaps less important now to reach a conclu- 
sion than to stimulate thorough discussion. I doubt the possibility 
of teaching the distinctive generalizations of economic history to the 
pupils of the secondary schools. It is not necessary to teach annals 
by memory processes as in the case of our national history, and for 
this reason there is no proper parallel between the claims of political 
and economic history for a place in the school curriculum. It may 
be that the secondary school should equip its students with a mature 
philosophy of life, as Mr. Wells suggests in his New Macchiavelli, but 
when we consider the modest attainments of our college graduates 
there is little to encourage us in any struggle toward such an ideal. 


FIELDS OF RESEARCH IN ECONOMIC HISTORY: LABOR 
By Frank T. CARLTON. 


Omitting from the classification such revolutionary organizations 
as the Industrial Workers of the World and the Workers’ Interna- 
tional Industrial Union, American labor organizations may be classed 
under two groups: the old-line trade or craft union and the new 
unionism of the industrial type. To the right of the first group are 
such organizations as the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and 
the International Typographical Union; to the left of the latter group 
is the Amalgamated Clothing Workers. Certain amalgamated organ- 
izations—of which the remodeled Brewery Workers, now called the 
Brewery, Flour, Cereal and Soft Drink Workers, is an example— 
lie in the borderland between the two groups. 

In the judgment of the writer, the most important piece of research 
in labor history now awaiting exploitation is that of tracing carefully 
the development of the philosophy, strategy, and structure of typical 
representatives of the two classes of labor organizations; such, for 
example, as the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, the United Mine 
Workers, the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, the International 
Molders’ Union, and the Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners. 
What were the conditions and incident forces which evolved the 
policies and programs for which the conservative trade-unions stand ? 
Why have these organizations stood firmly for the policy of business 
unionism, of immediate gains, and of little emphasis upon farsighted- 
ness # 


160 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Again, what are the other types of influences which have produced 
such powerful industrial unions as the United Mine Workers and the 
Amalgamated Clothing Workers? Do differences in ideals and meth- 
ods of strong labor organizations develop out of differences in the in- 
dustrial environment, in the use of machinery, in the relative numbers 
of recent immigrants in the union, in the type of workers who go into 
the various.industries, or in the character of leadership? What are 
the fundamental causes of the great variety in union structure and 
functions? To what extent are the ideals and the strategy of certain 
well-known conservative unions out of step with the industrial situa- 
tion of to-day? How far do they still bear the stamp of the frontier 
and of small-scale industry ? 

Studies of specific labor organizations such as are herein approved 
should be little concerned with dates, strikes, or spectacular details; 
but these investigations should disclose the play of forces industrial, 
psychological, and social, which have molded the unions into their pres- 
ent forms and have determined their programs. These studies may 
also give aid in answering such pertinent questions as: To what extent 
have industrial conditions in the last few decades cut across or inhib- 
ited the fundamental instincts of men? What modifications are fea- 
sible which will tend to make industry square with the instinctive 
inherited mechanism of the human organism? A union of psychology, 
sociology, and the newer type of historical research which is interested 
in social forces rather than in chronology is required to obtain the 
results which are being pointed out as desirable. 

And what are the qualifications of the men who are fitted to under- 
take this work? The investigators, in addition to being students of 
history and economics, should have a reasonable amount of training 
in sociology and psychology. They ought not to be out of sympathy 
with organized labor; but a definite bias in favor of the union element 
will tend to color their conclusions and impair the usefulness of their 
results. Obviously, the investigator in this bitterly contested field 
must be able to take a detached position. 

Careful studies, such as these briefly outlined, of a score or more of 
labor organizations will enable the students of labor problems to speak 
authoritatively in regard to the desirability of modifications in the prac- 
tices of employers and employers’ associations. Studies of specific 
organizations will also disclose or aid in disclosing to what extent the 
unreasonable and antisocial practices of labor unions, such as restric- 
tion of output and the closed shop with the closed union, are the prod- 
ucts of practices of employers and employers’ associations. If, as 
the writer suspects, these policies are in no small degree the inevitable 
reaction from the policies of antiunion employers, even the most stiff- 
necked employer may be forced by educated public opinion to change 


his tactics. 


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CONFERENCE ON ECONOMIC HISTORY 161 


The highest mission of historical research is to render efficient assist- 
ance in clearing away the mists which surround the opening of a new 
era in human progress. Historical studies of Jabor organizations will 
not disclose the future status of industrial relations; but studies of 
the sort outlined should aid in reducing to a minimum the friction 
incident to industrial changes, and practically remove the dangerous 
possibility of revolutionary modifications. May we soon have skilled 
workers in this fertile and neglected field of economic history. 

Only one other suggestion will be offered. The well-known History 
of Labor in the United States, written by Professor Commons and 
associates, ends with the year 1896. The history of the quarter of a 

-century, 1896-1921, should now be written in an adequate manner. 
This 25-year period marks an important epoch in the history of Ameri- 
can labor organizations. ‘The significant features of the period have 
been outlined by the writer in his Organized Labor in American 
History. 


AGRICULTURE AS A FIELD FOR HISTORICAL RESEARCH! 


By Louis B. Scumipt 


The agricultural history of the United States has not received its 
proportionate share of emphasis in the study of American economic 
development. The time has come when more attention must be 
given to this subject if we are to have a well-rounded out history of 
this country. In this respect English and European historians, who 
have given due emphasis to the place of agriculture in the history of 
those countries, may well be emulated. 

The reasons for giving special attention to agriculture as a field for 
historical research in the United States may be stated as follows: 
(1) Agriculture has always been the fundamental basis of our pros- 
perity. (2) The agricultural history of the United States is indis- 
pensable to a correct understanding of much of our political and 
diplomatic history. (3) It furnishes the background for the study of 
agricultural economics. (4) It affords an opportunity for the study 
of the lives and services of eminent men who have had a great 
influence on our agricultural development. (5) It is essential to the 
development of a sound and farsighted rural economy. 

Among the subjects which this field offers for investigation may be 
mentioned the history of the public land question; of specific leading 
agricultural industries; of agriculture in States and larger regions like 


1 Abstract based on a paper entitled ‘“‘ The economic history of American agriculture as a field for study 
read at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association held in Washington, D.C.,in December, 
1915. Doctor Schmidt’s paper war printed in the Mississippi Valley Historical Review, June, 1916, III, 
39-49, 


97244°—25——-11 


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162 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


the Middle West; of agricultural commerce and markets; of agri- 
cultural labor; of farm machinery; of farmers’ organizations; of the 
relation of the farmer to politics and legislation. It should be em- 
phasized, finally, that the economic history of American agriculture 
does not constitute a distinct phase of historical research separate 
from the other fields for historical research which are being considered 
at this meeting. On the contrary, it is very closely interrelated with 
these various fields. It constitutes rather, to be specific, a new point 
of view in American economic development. On this account it 
should enlist the sympathy of both the historian and the economist. 


Y. THE ORIGIN OF THE RUSSIAN STATE ON 
THE DNIEPER 


By MIKHAIL ROSTOVTSEV 


University of Wisconsin 


163 


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THE ORIGIN OF THE RUSSIAN STATE ON THE DNIEPER 


By RostovTsEv 


In the ninth century when the Russian annals first begin to give 
us a systematic record of the Russian people and their princes, Rus- 
sia appears to us as a well-shaped body, as an organized state, with 
its own peculiar political, social, and economic structure, and endowed 
with a high and flourishing civilization. Russia of the ninth century 
consisted of many important commercial cities, situated partly on 
the Dnieper and its tributaries, partly in the far north on Lake Ilmen, 
and partly in the east on the upper Volga. Each of these cities pos- 
sessed a large territory populated by different Slavonic tribes and had 
its own self-government, with a popular assembly, a council of the eld- 
est and elected magistrates. Jor the purpose of defending its flour- 
ishing trade the population of each town invited a special body of 
trained and well-armed warriors, commanded by a prince. To this 
prince each city intrusted also the tasi of collecting tribute from the 
population, and of fulfilling some administrative and judicial duties. 
These princes with their retinues generally were German, especially 
Normans, who were called in Russia Varanguians. One of these 
princes of the ninth century succeeded in uniting under the rule of one 
dynasty all the Russian cities, and in forming out of them one state, 
although not a very firmly established one with a capital on the 
Dnieper—Kiev. 

Nothing similar to this kind of federation of large, commercial, 
- self-governing cities, ruled by an invited—i. e., hired—dynasty, 
existed at that time in western Europe, with her well-known feudal 
structure. In the history of the formation of the Russian state, all 
is peculiar and original—the exclusively commercial character of the 
cities, the great sway of the Russian commerce which reached Con- 
stantinople in the south, central Asia, China, and India in the east, 
and the Baltic and White Sea in the north, the sharp difference 
between the self-government of the cities and the primitive tribal 
organization of the country, the contrast between the prehistoric 
manner of life of the country population and the high standard of 
civilized life in the cities, and—last but not least—the unparalleled 
combination of foreign military power and well-organized self-rule in 


the frame of the same city-state. 
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All these peculiarities of Russian origins and the appalling differ- 
ences between Russia and western Europe are still unexplained. 
Why should Russia begin its evolution with commerce and city life, 
western Europe with agriculture and the so-called feudal state-estate ¢ 
What is the reason for Russia’s developing the same form of state- 
estate much later, not earlier than in the thirteenth century, when 
western Europe had already begun to supercede this form? Why 
even then had the Russian feudalism assumed peculiar and original 
forms so dissimilar to the same phenomena in western Europe ? 

In spite of many attempts made both by Russian and west Euro- 
pean scholars to solve this problem, it remains still unsolved. The 
main reasons for this failure are as follows: It was a mistake to 
begin the history of Russia with the Russian annals; i. e., with the 
ninth century; i. e., to confound the history of Russia with the his- 
tory of theSlavonic race. The history of Russia as an economic and 
political organism is much more ancient than the first testimonies 
about the Slavonic race. Russia, as the land, existed much earlier 
than the ninth century, and formed a part of the civilized world even 
in the classical period and in the period of migrations. At this epoch 
the main lines of the future evolution were already definitely shaped. 
Therefore we must treat the history of Russia not as the history of 
the Slavonic race, but as the history of the Russian land. I am con- 
vinced that if we treat the history of Russia from this point of view, 
many of the alleged difficulties will disappear at once, and the his- 
tory of Russia in general will appear before us in an entirely new light. 
Let me go more into detail and explain from this point of view the 
political and social strueture of the Kievan princedom in the ninth 
and tenth centuries. 

Civilized life in south Russia started much earlier than is gener- 
ally accepted. Already at the dawn of history, in the so-called pre- 
historic period, the valleys of the Dnieper, the Don, and the Kuban 
can not be separated, as regards their civilized life, from the three 
main focuses of human culture in general; that of Central Asia and 
the nearer East, that of middle Europe, and especially the Danube 
Basin, and that of the Mediterranean. In the so-called copper age 
the valley of Kuban produced a civilization similar to the contempo- 
rary civilization of Mesopotamia, Turkestan, and Egypt. At the 
same epoch a branch of the middle European civilization flourished 
on the Dnieper. The first steps of cultural development in the Aegean 
are closely connected with the cultural development on the shores of 
the Black Sea. The population of the valleys of the Kuban and the 
Dnieper at this epoch had already begun to develop a settled agrieul- 
tural life, and its first large townlike settlements date from the same 
period. The same period witnessed also the formation of the great 
commercial highways leading to Russia, the caravan road from Central 


ORIGIN OF THE RUSSIAN STATE ON THE DNIEPER 167 


Asia to the mouth of the Don and to the Azov Sea, the maritime way 
along the shores of the Black Sea to the shores both Asiatic and 
European of the Aegean, and the great riverway from the Black to 
the Baltic Sea, the way of the amber trade. 

The first millennium B.C. was a great epoch in the history of Russia. 
At this time both civilized life and international commerce took firm 
root in south Russia. To this phenomenon the existence on the shores 
of the Black Sea of two well-organized and centralized states, both of 
Indo-European origin, largely contributed. I mean the Thraco-Cim- 
merian state in the tenth and ninth centuries, B. C., and the Irano-Scy- 
thian state in the eighth to the third centuries, B.C. The very existence 
of these states in south Russia attracted to the shores of the Black Sea 
the main bearers of civilized life of this time—the Greeks; and thus Rus- 
sia became connected by evermore solid ties to the cradle of western 
Kuropean civilization—the shores of the Aegean. Exceedingly inten- 
sive was civilized life in south Russia during the long existence of the 
great Scythian state—the minor brother of the Persian world mon- 
archy. ‘This state succeeded in evolving a highly developed military 
organization, comparable to that of the Spartan state, and thus in 
uniting under its power all the tribes between the Volga and the Dan- 
ube by securing to these tribes the full possibility of developing their 
economic production and an ever-increasing opportunity of selling 
the products of their economic activity through the intermediary of 
the Greek colonies on the Black Sea to the Greek world. Grains, 
fish, and hides were supplied by the partly settled, partly nomadic 
population of the south Russian steppes. The great Russian rivers 
brought to the Greek harbors enormous quantities of valuable furs 
(beavers, sables, etc.), honey and wax, products of the forest indus- 
tries of the Finnish hunters in central and northern Russia. The 
caravan trade of Central Asia carried to the mouths of the Don and 
the Kuban precious metals and stones from the Orient. As a result 
of the multisecular existence of the Scythian state and of the ever- 
increasing exchange of goods between Russia and Greece, settled life 
took firm root on the banks of the great Russian rivers and spread 
evermore toward the north. The archeological investigations in the 
valleys of the Dnieper and the Don showed that in both regions the 
ancient prehistoric settlements developed into important fortified 
cities, certainly big centers of commerce. While on the mouths of 
the Russian rivers these settlements were due to the Greek initiative, 
the large cities on the middle courses were of purely native origin. 
It is noteworthy that most of these towns are situated in the region 
which later became the center of the Dnieper-Russia, in the actual 
provinces of Kiev, Poltava, and Chernigov, on the rivers Dnieper, 
Desna, Sula, and Psiol. I have every reason to suppose that the 
main cities of the Dnieper-Russia—Kiev, Chernigov, Pereiaslav!— 


168 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


developed out of these ancient native settlements. No one of the 
above-mentioned towns has been systematically investigated. But 
their large cemeteries, carefully excavated, yielded enormous quan- 
tities of precious gold and silver objects, of valuable pieces of furni- 
ture, of amphore full of wine and oil, all these showing that the 
prosperity of these cities depended entirely on their trade, which of 
course assumed the forms of barter, as no Greek or Oriental coins were 
ever found in the graves. 

The Scythians were replaced in the prairies of south Russia, begin- 
ning with the third century, B. C., by a sequence of Sarmatian tribes, 
of the same Iranian stock. They succeeded with the help of some 
Thracian and Celtic tribes which invaded south Russia from the west, 
in destroying the mighty Scythian state, but they did not succeed in 
forming in its place their own united state. They remained divided 
into different tribes, which constantly moved to the west until they 
were stopped at the threshold of the mighty Roman Empire. But 
their appearance in south Russia did not change the whole aspect of 
life there. Like the Scythians, the Sarmatians understood the impor- 
tance of keeping alive the international trade and of protecting the big 
commercial cities, both Greek and native, on the shores of the Black 
Sea and on the banks of the Russian rivers. But the destruction of 
the Scythian united state and the substitution for it of many com- 
paratively week tribal formations had a far-reaching influence on the 
development of Russia. It opened the doors of south Russia to the 
western neighbors—the Celtic and German tribes. The former of 
course only hooked on to Russia in their movement toward the rich 
regions of the Balkan Peninsular and Asia Minor. But the Germans 
who followed them later on—especially beginning with the first cen- 
tury, B. C.—met with different conditions. Their movement toward 
the south and the west was barred by thestrong legions of the Roman 
Empire and was stopped at the very threshold of the civilized world, 
on the line of the Rine and Danube. The only way for their south- 
ward expansion was therefore the old commercial way of the Dnieper. 
Consequently German tribes from the north and the west gradually 
poured into south Russia and occupied one place after another. This 
is shown with full evidence by the substitution in south Russia of the 
Scythian and Sarmatian graves by graves of quite different forms 
and content identical with graves of the German tribes. But we have 
no reason whatever to suppose that the German invaders radically 
changed the whole aspect of life in south Russia. Their graves are 
of course poorer than those of the Scythians and Sarmatians. But 
they also are full of products of classical art and industry, and more- 
over we often find in these graves Roman silver and gold coins. We 
must not forget that the German tribes in their native country were 
in constant trade relations with the Roman lands and became accus- 


ORIGIN OF THE RUSSIAN STATE ON THE DNIEPER 169 


tomed to their system of exchange based on money. No wonder if 
beginning with the first century, A. D., treasures of Roman coins are 
of constant occurrence on all the Russian river ways as far as the 
Baltic shore, and that products of Roman industries and Roman coins 
penetrated on the same ways as far as the western slopes of the Ural 
Mountains and the steppes of western Siberia. It is evident there- 
fore that the Germans took over the ancient commercial relations, 
and even that they developed these relations in teaching the German 
merchants in Scandinavia and eastern Germany to use as one of the 
main ways of their trade the system of the Russian rivers. We have 
no ground, either, to suppose that the Germans destroyed the city 
life on the Dnieper. They needed these cities as much as their prede- 
cessors. I am rather inclined to think that they developed this city 
life and created new trade centers, especially in the north. Novgorod 
on the Ilmen, for example, had perhaps this origin. 

In the light of this constant filtering of the German tribes into 
Russia we may better understand the so-called Gothic invasion of 
Russia in the third century, A. D. It was only the logical conse- 
quence of a long process. In the third century the Germans finally 
reached the shores of the Black Sea and succeeded in unitiug all the 
German tribes in Russia into one state under the leadership of two 
mighty tribes—the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths. But on these 
shores they did not destroy either commerce or civilized life. Of 
course, they burned down Olbia, but they kept the more important 
Panticapeum, and used it as the starting point for their commerce 
and military expeditions against the Roman Empire. 

The Germans—warriors and keen sailors—were always attracted 
by the wealth of the Roman Empire. As soon as they felt that the 
mighty organism of the empire in the critical period of the third cen- 
tury began to weaken and to disintegrate, they renewed their attacks 
on the Roman Provinces. The weakest point in the Roman Empire 
was, of course, the Danube frontier, long and difficult as it was, with- 
out a civilized hinterland. But to surmount the superstitious fear 
of the Germans before the legions of Rome, then supposed to be 
invincible, and to transform scattered attacks into a mighty move- 
ment, a strong push from behind was needed. This shock was given 
to the German tribes in Russia by the first Mongolian invaders of 
Europe—the mighty Huns. Under their pressure, a part of the Ger- 
man and Iranian tribes with whom the Germans lived in a kind of 
federation—the Visigoths and the Alains—rushed first into the 
Roman Empire. The results are well known and I need not review 
them. Soon after, the Huns themselves, under Attila, dragging with 
them the Ostrogoths, the Alains, and scores of Germanic and Iranian 
tribes, followed the victorious march of their predecessors. I do not 
need to elaborate this point. 


170 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


The results of these events were of the utmost importance for 
Russia. In the fifth and sixth centuries Russia was swept clean of 
her German, Iranian, and Mongolian rulers and inhabitants. Small 
splinters of the Alains remained on the Kuban, where they still dwell 
under the name of Ossetes. Some tribes of the Goths still occupied 
a part of the Crimea and of the Tauric Peninsula. Scattered hordes 
of Huns came back, after their disaster, to the Russian steppes. But 
no one of these splinters played any part in the future destinies of 
Russia. The place of the Germans soon was occupied by a new 
European people—the Slavs. They dwelt originally—as far as our 
knowledge reaches—on the northern slopes of the Carpathians toward 
the Vistula and the Baltic Sea. According to Ptolemy and to Jor- 
danes they were well known to the Romans and were divided in three 
parts—the Veneds, the Sclavenes, and the Antes. During the domi- 
nation of the Goths in south Russia they were vanquished by them 
and formed a part of the Gothic Empire and endured a kind of vas- 
salage. But in the sixth century the same Jordanes, a Goth himself 
who knew very well the conditions of northeastern Europe, knew 
likewise of the continuous settlements on the Dnieper and of the 
occupation of the steppes as far as the Black Sea. It is evident, 
therefore, that the Slavs repeated the movement of the Germans and 
replaced them in south Russia. Thus they founded in south Russia 
a state of the same type as the Germans before them and naturally 
inherited from them their towns, their trade relations, and their 
civilization. This civilization was of course not a German civilization, 
but the ancient Greco-Iranian civilization of the Scythisns and the 
Sarmatians with slight modifications. At the very dawn of their life 
in south Russia they were threatened by a great danger. New con- 
querors of the same stock as the Huns—the Avars—tried to swallow 
them and to drag them into western Europe. But the new Slavonic 
federation was strong enough to repulse this attack and to annihilate 
the Avars. Thence the old Russian saying preserved to us by our 
annals: ‘‘They perished like the Avars.”’ 

The Slavs took firm root on the Dnieper and spread widely to the 
north and to the east, occupying all the old highways of commerce. 
In the north they developed Novgorod, in the east they founded 
Rostov, in the south—opposite Panticapeum—Tmutarakan. The 
conditions were favorable for them. Their ancient relations with 
the Germans secured to them the military help of wandering Norman 
chieftains, who were prepared to serve and to fight for anybody, 
provided that they had good opportunities to enrich themselves. 
The Germans helped the Slavs to find the ancient way to Constan- 
tinople and to protect their trade fleet on the Dnieper. The dom- 
ination in the south of the new rulers on the Volga—the Mongolian 
tribe of the Khazars—a peaceful domination of a trading people, 


ORIGIN OF THE RUSSIAN STATE ON THE DNIEPER 171 


guaranteed for them the oriental market. So they grew strong and 
rich and developed a lively trade with the German north, the Fin- 
nish northeast, the Arabic southeast, and especially with the By- 
zantine south. This trade was, as before, the main source of their 
civilization and their wealth, and dictated to them the forms of their 
political and social life. Their centers were, as before, the great cities 
on the Dnieper, and the most important of these cities was, of course, 
Kiev, thanks to her wonderful geographic situation in the middle of 
the Dnieper Basin, just midway between the Baltic and the Black 
Seas. 

History knows of no pauses and interruptions in its evolution. 
Nor are there any in the history of Russia. The Slavonic is one of 
the epochs in the evolution of Russia as such. But the Slavonic 
race succeeded in accomplishing one cardinal thing, which neither 
the Iranians nor the Germans could or wanted to achieve. For the 
Iranians and the Germans, Russia was an expedient to achieve their 
main aim, the conquest of western Europe. For the Slavs, Russia 
was their final aim and became their country. They bound them- 
selves forever to the country, and to them, of course, Russia is indebted 
not only for her name but also for her peculiar statehood and civiliza- 
tion. 


VI, RECENT REALIGNMENT IN THE HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL 
MEDICINE AND SCIENCE 


FIELDING H. GARRISON, M. D. 
Surgeon General’s Office 
Washington, D. C, 


173 


. 
. 


f 


RECENT REALIGNMENT IN THE HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL MEDICINE 
AND SCIENCE 


By Fre.pina H. Garrison, M. D. 


Up to the beginning of the twentieth century it was assumed by 
most historians that science was persecuted and suppressed during 
the Middle Ages. This was due in part to religious prepossessions, 
to the aversion to dogmatic theology which sprang up under the 
liberal teachings of Darwin and Huxley, to the tendency of the human 
mind to follow tradition, but more particularly to ignorance of the 
basic documents and their content. Until recently little was known 
of the contents of the earlier printed books on science, and the scien- 
tific manuscripts were practically unknown. Intensive study of the 
older writings has been the order of the later period, and the man- 
uscripts are now in process of being photographed, catalogued, col- 
lated, and studied. It is now taken for granted that the Middle 
Ages were a period of race absorption and formation of new nations, 
a period in which the popular mind was paralyzed by the long suc- 
cession of wars following the downfall of the Roman Empire, in which, 
as in Russia to-day, life was endangered by the aggressions of 
wandering outlawry and in which the only stabilizing powers and 
protectors of learning were the church and the state. In the earlier 
centuries of the Middle Ages Greek thought was moribund, while 
western European culture underwent a long process of Latinization, 
followed by a period of Arabic domination; that is, of Greek culture 
filtered through Arabic translations, prior to the extensive circulation 
of the actual Greek texts after the invention of printing. The effect of 
this Latinizing process upon medicine was peculiar. In the first cen- 
tury of the Christian era the Roman and also the Greek physicians liv- 
ing in Rome began to make huge compilations or encyclopedias of every- 
thing known about medicine. We need only mention Celsus, Pliny, 
Galen, Aretzeus, Soranus, and Dioscorides. This tradition was main- 
tained by the Byzantine writers of the sixth and seventh centuries 
A. D., and was carried straight into the Renaissance period and beyond 
it. The effect was to make internal medicine a matter of cut and 
dried doctrine as to theory, and of tradition as to practice. The big 
books on practice were excellently arranged, divided into chapters 
and even indexed, but, short of a few original observations, contained 

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176 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


little that was not already known. Meanwhile the traditions of 
rational bedside practice, derived from the Greeks, was maintained at 
a solitary outpost of Greek culture, the medical school at Salerno. 
Little was known of medieval anatomy until Sudhoff exhumed, pho- 
tographed, and published the manuscripts and manuscript illustra- 
tions. His findings go to show that the earlier medieval anatomists 
were, in the main, blind followers of tradition, their descriptions being 
often based upon the earlier dissections of apes and swine, their 
illustrations servile copies of crude diagrams which originated, per- 
haps in the Orient, hundreds of years before. Just before the Renais- 
sance period, as Streeter has shown, the Florentine painters made 
more dissections and did better anatomical illustration than the pro- 
fessional anatomists themselves. Modern anatomy began with the 
wonderful hand drawings of Leonardo da Vinci (1510) and the text- 
book of Vesalius (1543). There was no physiology to speak of 
between Galen and Harvey. The medieval physicians, then, were 
weak in anatomy and physiology, and not particularly remarkable 
in internal medicine. Their main accomplishment was in surgery 
and public hygiene. Of surgeons there were two classes—the edu- 
cated, scientific surgeons like Roger, Roland, Hugh, Theodoric, 
Saliceto, Lanfranc, and Guy de Chauliac, who were protected by 
prince and prelate; and the wandering outcast surgeons, who oper- 
ated for cateract, hernia, and stone, and sometimes cast discredit 
upon the guild by malpractice. Hugh, Theodoric, and Mondeville 
taught the principles of aseptic surgery, as originally stated by 
Hippocrates. Guy discredited it. The medieval surgeons used sleep- 
ing draughts or anesthetic inhalations, and their operative skill was 
considerable. Saliceto knew of suture of nerves and intestines, 
crepitus in fractures, renal dropsy, venereal contagion, and used 
mercurial salves and prophylactic ablutions. The many manuscript 
pictures of surgical practice which have been published by Giacosa, 
Sudhoff, van Leersum, and others give us a good notion of medieval 
procedure and etiquette, and from the number of them we can sur- 
mise the amount of operating which was done in spite of the many 
interdictions. In the Renaissance period, due to the development 
of didactic anatomy by Vesalius, surgery made even greater ad- 
vances, culminating in the work of Paré. 

Adequate knowledge of public medicine in the Middle Ages is of 
recent date, and is based upon the exhumation, collation, and publi- 
cation of unprinted public documents and manuscripts, mainly by 
Sudhoff and his pupils. The development of universities by the 
state; of hospitals, nursing, and charitable care of the sick by the 
church; the model law of Frederick II for the regulation of medical 
practice (1224), were known to earlier historians. Sudhoff has ex- 
humed and published a great number of sanitary ordinances, and fugi- 


REALIGNMENT IN HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL MEDICINE AND SCIENCE 177 


tive tracts on syphilis, plague, and leprosy, showing the efforts made to 
prevent these diseases, and the interdiction of the adulteration of food, 
the sale of poisons, the accumulation of refuse, etc. The Mosaic prin- 
ciple of isolation of diseases thought to be contagious was extended in 
a city ordinance of Basel (1350) to eight diseases, viz, plague, phthisis, 
scabies, erysipelas, leprosy, anthrax, trachoma, and epilepsy. Through 
the severe and rigorous isolation of lepers, leprosy was ultimately 
stamped out. Quarantine of ships against bubonic plague was first 
instituted by the Venetian Republic (1374); detention for a month 
was practiced at Ragusa (1377), and this trentina was extended to a 
quarantina (40 days) at Marseille (1383) and applied to infected areas 
by Venice in 1403. The investigations of early public health docu- 
ments and tracts on syphilis by Sudhoff go to show that the disease was 
already known in the time of Columbus and that civil authority was 
making efforts to prevent its spread. We have to reflect that the 
Greeks had no definite knowledge or theory of contagion, combating 
major epidemics not by isolation of patients but by prayers and sacrifices 
to angered gods. Thisknowledgecame from the Hebrews, and isclearly 
stated in Leviticus (XIII—XV) and elsewhere in the Bible. The isola- 
tion of epileptics, and the existence of an isolation hospital for epilep- 
tics at Rufach (Upper Alsace) as late as 1486, was a solitary sur- 
vival of the Assyro-Babylonian doctrine that the disease is contagious, 
and of the ancient Greek theory that the major neuroses were in the 
nature of “‘miasms” or stains cast upon the soul by the infernal 
(chthonian) gods, which was ridiculed in the Hippocratic writing “On 
the Sacred Disease.”’ 

As Allbutt has shown, theoretical science was much hampered in 
the Middle Ages through the opposition between Realists who believed 
that all things proceed from God (Theism), and Nominalists who 
maintained that God exists in all things (Pantheism). This opposi- 
tion led to persecution of freethinkers, tended to make all reasoning 
deductive, and held but little encouragement to followers of induction 
and experiment. But such practical inventions as printing, gunpow- 
der, the mariner’s compass, astronomical tables, spectacle lenses, and 
sundry devices in operative surgery were immediately taken up, and 
it is to this tendency to evaluate an investigation, discovery, or 
invention by its practical bearings that we owe the development of 
modern experimental or laboratory science. The medieval physicians 
devised most of the school arithmetic and grammars of the period. 
The association of physicians, painters, and apothecaries in the same 
guild led to the interest of the artists in practical anatomy and made 
extensive dissecting possible (Streeter). Vesalius and Harvey gained 
ground through the practical importance of their work; and, in a 


97244°—25——12 


178 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


later period, even such a complex phase of mathematics as the theory 
of differential equations was developed to solve problems in mechanics 
and physics. The best phases of medieval science—invention, sani- 
tation, surgery—were away from bald theorizing and in the direction 
of the practical. The keynote of modern scientific education is that 
chemistry and physics are best taught in the laboratory, anatomy in 
the dissecting room, pathology in the deadhouse, surgery in the 
operating theater, internal medicine in the clinic and at the bedside. 
Science, as Woodward has said, actually thrives by opposition. This 
phase of medieval science, the dying out of ancient culture, the 
development of practical handcraft and redecraft, has been defined 
by Singer as “the pathology and embryology of human thought.” 

The status of the scholastic literature of the Middle Ages was never 
better stated than by Doctor Johnson in his Tour of the Hebrides: 

Learning was then rising on the world; but ages so long accustomed to darkness 
were too much dazzled with its light to see anything distinctly. The first race of 
scholars in the fifteenth century, and. some time after, were, for the most part, 
learning to speak rather than to think, and were, therefore, more studious of ele- 
gance than of truth. Thecontemporaries of Boethius thought it sufficient to know 
what the ancients had delivered. The examination of tenets and of facts was 
reserved for another generation. 

This critical examination and study of documents, begun by the 
medical philologists of the Renaissance period, is now going forward. 
While the most important medical texts of classical antiquity and the 
Middle Ages were issued in type by the Renaissance printers, much 
of the scientific and medical literature of the time remained in the 
category of “published not printed,” i. e., circulated in manuscript. 
Mrs. Dorothea Waley Singer has catalogued and classified no less 
than 30,000 scientific manuscripts of the Middle Ages in England 
alone, and of these, 15,000 are medical. This will give some idea of 
the enormous amount of scientific literature existing in the Middle 
Ages, and little of this has been examined to date. Sudhoff has de- 
voted most of his life to the photography, study, and publication of 
medieval medical manuscripts and’manuscript illustrations found in 
libraries, monasteries, palaces, and elsewhere on the continent of 
Europe. By collation and comparison of these, he has been able to 
alter many facts and dates, e. g., the determination of the approx- 
imate date of the famous Regimen sanitatis of Salerno, by using some 
80 manuscripts of the poem as controls. In the textual study of 
medieval medicine, those who have done most are Choulant, Haeser, 
Pagel, Sudhoff, Neuburger, Nicaise, Wickersheimer, and Singer. In 
the United States only two physicians have thus far devoted much 
attention to this phase of medieval medicine, namely, Dr. James J. 
Walsh (New York) and Dr. Edward C. Streeter (Boston). 


VII. LATIN AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IN 
THE MIDDLE AGES 


By LOUIS J. PAETOW 


University of California 


179 


i} 
| 


LATIN AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 


By Louis J. PaEtow 


The outstanding feature of general history since the fall of the 
Roman Empire has been the ascendancy of western Europe. In 
times to come, when historians shall have discarded the fantastic and 
illogical division of history into medieval and modern times, they will 
probably designate the period from the decline of the Roman Empire 
to the beginning of the Great War in 1914 as the period of the domi- 
nance of western Europe. Perhaps the opening of this period will 
be set about 1100 A. D., for in the formative era from the fifth to the 
eleventh centuries western Europe was still on the defensive against 
its many foes, and the world was dominated by the Byzantines and 
the Mohammedans. But beginning with the first crusade, the west of 
Europe took the offensive, and ever since has dominated the world 
of thought and of action. 

Medieval western Europe fell heir to two extremely important 
factors in the ancient Roman Empire—the Roman Catholic Church 
and the Latin language. In the period from the crusades to 
the age of oceanic -discoveries leadership in the world was secured in 
western Europe by men who called themselves Latins (Latini). In 
short, modern civilization rests flatly upon the achievements of Latin 
Christendom. 

Latin was the dominant note of the culture of western Europe 
when it emerged as the mistress of the world. Wherever Roman 
Christianity penetrated, there the Latin language beeame the bond 
of union amalgamating the efforts of the most progressive peoples on 
the globe. Latin was the international language in the Middle Ages 
not only among the Romanic and Germanic peoples; it had pene- 
trated far into Slavic lands; it was heard in Iceland and Greenland, 
and perhaps on the shores of North America; it was widespread in 
eastern Europe and western Asia in the days when there was a Latin 
kingdom of Jerusalem and a Latin empire of Constantinople; and it 
had reached the Pacific Ocean in the oriental bishopric of Peking. 

One would naturally suppose that so tremendous an engine for 
civilization as was Latin in the Middle Ages would have been studied 
and appraised to the last detail by modern scholarship. But what 

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182 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


do we see? Almost utter neglect. No adequate history of post- 
classical Latin; very fragmentary histories of its literature; most of 
its monuments still unedited, or edited badly; and worst of all, in 
this age of dictionaries and books of reference, no satisfactory diction- 
aries for those who concern themselves with the Latin writings of 
medieval and modern times. If Du Cange could appear among us 
to-day nothing would surprise him more than that his Glossarium ad 
scriptores mediae et infime latinitatis, written in 1678 and augmented 
largely in the eighteenth century, is still referred to as the standard 
dictionary of medieval Latin. Strictly speakifg, it is not a diction- 
ary at all, but, as its very title indicates, a glossary of uncommon 
and technical terms, especially in the domain of politics and law. In 
many respects it is more a dictionary of medieval antiquities than a 
true lexicon. 

Historians, and medievalists in particular, are much concerned 
with postclassical Latin and should have a full understanding of its 
unmerited fate. On the whole, historians have done more than phi- 
lologists to draw due attention to this form of Latin. Du Cange 
himself was a historian rather than a linguist. The strange eclipse 
of medieval Latin in modern times can be understood only when 
illuminated by the full light of history. Thus the task of awakening 
interest in the Latin of Latin Christendom should be the joint work 
of philologists and historians. 

Latin was a truly international language in the ancient Roman 
world. The break-up of the Empire in the fourth and the fifth cen- 
turies threatened its total dissolution into a number of Romanic 
tongues. That danger was averted by the Roman Church. Although 
Christianity was introduced into western Europe through a Greek 
medium, by about 400 A. D., western Christendom was thoroughly 
Latin. St. Augustine could afford to forget the Greek which he had 
learned as a schoolboy under the master’s lash, and St. Jerome sealed 
the triumph of Latin in the Vulgate. Thus Latin was given a dis- 
tinctly ecclesiastical stamp and also the stamp of the language of 
the common people, for Christianity in its earlier stages was a popular 
religion. 

By means of a church which established its center in Rome, the 
language of ancient Latium was thus preserved as an international 
language, and soon penetrated into distant woods and swamps of west- 
ern Europe where the Roman eagles had never been seen. 

True, it was not the language of all the inhabitants of western 
Europe. It was mastered only by the clergy, the learned class, and 
by others who engaged in international business, including many mem- 
bers of the governing classes and even some merchants. In the early 
Middle Ages the state of culture was not high enough and the facil- 
ities for schooling were so poor that it was impossible to hold the 


LATIN AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 183 


common people to the Latin of books and international intercourse, 
and so they were left to develop their vernaculars without help or 
hindrance. Until about the twelfth century, however, there was 
practically no writing done in western Europe except in Latin. 

It was in this early period that a form of Latin script was developed 
which rapidly became standard throughout Latin Christendom—the 
so-called Caroline minuscule. To-day, the use of these letters is well- 
nigh world-wide. The modern typewriter has done much to make us 
appreciate the chaste beauty and serviceability of the Caroline minus- 
cule. We usually call it the Roman alphabet, but that is, strictly 
speaking, a misnomer. If Cesar could appear among us to-day, he 
would be unable to read his Commentaries from an ordinary printed 
edition. Only the capital letters would appear familiar to his eyes. 
Most of the small letters would perplex him exceedingly. Our alpha- 
bet is a medieval Latin product of Carolingian times, originating 
chiefly in northern France, in that fruitful portion of western Europe 
which later brought forth Gothic architecture and the medieval uni- 
versity. Bismarck refused to read books printed in “Latin” type, 
insisting on the Gothic type which he looked upon with national pride 
as a German product, until it was pointed out to him that the sup- 
posedly characteristic German type was merely a survival of a degen- 
erate or baroque form of medieval writing which most of the other 
nations of Europe had discarded in favor of the Caroline minuscule. 
This illustrates how seriously the advancement of learning can be hin- 
dered by ignorance and prejudice in high places. 

The Christian Church thus carried Latin through perilous times, 
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it was borne aloft trium- 
phantly by the medieval university movement. Latin naturally 
became the sole medium of expression in one of the most remarkable 
intellectual revivals which the world has ever seen. Now Europe 
witnessed the interesting spectacle of truly international universities— 
masters and students flocking to the famous centers of learning from 
all corners of Europe regardless of the vernaculars which were their 
mother tongues; books written in remote cells of monasteries becom- 
ing at once, without translations, common property of the intellec- 
tual class throughout western [urope. 

Internationalism is put to the hardest test by war. According to 
a letter of John of Salisbury, dated 1168, King Louis VII of France 
complained of the German students in Paris who, with grand and 
boastful phrases, mocked him because he lived like a plain citizen and 
had none of the barbaric splendors of a tyrant, constantly surrounded 
by armed guards. Louis VII actually expelled some foreign students, 
but John of Salisbury considered that action very exceptional in hos- 
pitable France, “the kindliest and most civilized of all nations” 
(omnium mitissima et civilissima nationum). The powerful and war- 


184 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


like Philip Augustus was very tolerant toward students who were 
alien enemies. The same is true of his great namesake, Philip IV 
(the Fair). On February 25, 1297, he sent an order to all his justices 
and ministers to watch with special care over the students in Paris 
and Orleans who had come from Flanders. War had broken out 
with the Count of Flanders, and he feared that under this pretext 
many might be tempted to molest the members of the university who 
had come from those parts. As long as they conducted themselves 
properly in France they were to be under the special care of the 
king; they were allowed to go to Flanders and to return freely, and 
messengers with money and supplies were to be allowed to pass 
between them and their homes.’ A similar order was issued in 1315 by 
his successor when war had broken out between France and another 
Count of Flanders.’ 

Thus Latin was acting most effectively as a bond of union in west- 
ern Europe when the foundations of modern civilization were laid 
in parliament, in the jury, and in the university. Apparently the 
question was never raised as to whether Latin should endure as the 
international language. Men simply took for granted that it always 
would endure, for its advantages were so obvious. Roger Bacon 
never dreamed that the day would come when university lectures 
would be delivered at Paris in French.’ 

In this very cocksure attitude of the men of the medieval univer- 
sities there lurked great danger for Latin. They used it with the 
utmost freedom, which bordered on abandon, in expressing the sub- 
tlest distinctions in philosophy and theology. Latin was in large 
measure remade in these institutions of learning and a new epoch 
opened in the history of the language. We would suppose that one 
of the foremost branches in medieval universities would have been 
the study of Latin itself. If we were to develop an international 
language to-day, it would at once become the object of the most 
painstaking study to determine its theory and practice. But medieval 
universities were so engrossed in other things that they paid practi- 
cally no attention to the study of Latin language and literature. 
They had a precious jewel and they handled it as if it were a clod. 

Let it be remembered, however, that there is an honorable list of 
men of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries who advocated the study 
of Latin language and literature and who foretold thc evil conse- 
quences which would follow neglect. There were those who pleaded 
for a sympathetic study of the ancient classical masterpieces of Latin, 
and others who realized that new and improved grammars and hand- 


1Chartularium universital/is Parisiensis, edited by Denifle and Chatelain, II, 75, No. 691. 

3Tbid., 175, No. 719. 

3 See, e. g., his Compendium siudii, ed. Brewer. in Fr. Rogeri Bacon Opera quaedam hacienus inedita, 
I (Rolls Series, 15 466), also his Opus majus, ed. Bridges, I, 67. 


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LATIN AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IN THE MIDDLE.AGES 185 


books were necessary to teach Latin in an up-to-date way. It is 
notorious that for centuries the books of Donatus and Priscian were 
used to teach medieval Latin to children whose training and mental 
attitude differed radically from those of the boys for whom these 
books were written. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries some 
valiant efforts were made to correct this evil. The most successful 
new grammatical text was the famous versified Doctrinale of Alexander 
de Villa Dei. 

Alexander was an obscure student in Paris who wrote his book in 
1199, at the behest of the Bishop of Dol, to tutor his two grandchildren. 
The grammar is not without its merits, especially in its chapters on 
syntax, but the astounding thing about it is that so indifferent a book 
acquired such a wonderful reputation. At least one professor in the 
University of Paris, John Garland,spent endless efforts in the first half 
of the thirteenth century decrying the Doctrinale or trying to improve 
it, but to no avail. The sad truth is that the enlightened thirteenth 
century was satisfied with the Doctrinale as a text for teaching Latin. 
The great medieval universities, which should have fostered the study 
of their precious international language with utmost care, stultified 
themselves by resting content with Priscian and the Doctrinale. 

The inevitable reaction came in the fourteenth century when the 
Italian humanists turned away from the traditional subjects of the 
schools and fairly reveled in the study of Latin language and liter- 
ature in the pages of the ancient classical authors. lLaurentius Valla 
(c. 1406-1457), in his Elegantiz lingue Latine, sounded the keynote 
of this new era in the history of Latin. For hundreds of years, he 
said, no one had spoken Latin, no one had even been able to read 
real Latin. Then he contrasted the sad centuries which failed to 
produce a single scholar with his own happy generation which had 
recovered the Roman language and set up as its ideal of intellectual 
achievement Ciceronian eloquence. 

This curse of Valla and his followers darkened the Middle Age for 
centuries; it utterly blighted medieval Latin which had served so 
wonderfully as an international language. The humanists believed 
that they had awakened Latin to a new life. They did reawaken 
classical Latin and thus did scholarship immeasurable benefit by 
opening up the ancient world. But by condemning all things medi- 
eval without discrimination they killed Latin as a living and inter- 
national language. It was not long before the vernaculars encroached 
upon the old precincts of Latin and divided former Latin Christendom 
into many rival linguistic groups at the very time when it was 
winning the world by means of oceanic discoveries. 

Can Latin come back? Can it once again become an international 
language such as it was for so many centuries of the world’s history ? 
Such a question can not be answered offhand in the negative. It is 


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too important to be brushed aside; it deserves to be investigated. 
Ever since the beginning of this century there have come insistent 
demands that the problem of a world language must be faced squarely. 
Daily in this age of rapid progress distances are shrinking, old bar- 
riers are disappearing, our neighbors are coming closer and growing 
‘more numerous, the burden of learning many foreign languages is 
becoming more and more intolerable. We must devise some means of 
understanding each other. This great problem has been approached 
largely in a desultory way by miscellaneous groups often working in 
a very amateurish and visionary fashion. The great universities 
and other learned bodies have held themselves aloof from it almost 
as completely as medieval universities neglected the study of Latin 
language and literature. The late war interrupted the quest for an 
international language, but now it has been taken up with renewed 
vigor. The war itself and the Peace Conference forcibly emphasized 
the need of a common means of communication. 

In July, 1919, the International Research Council, meeting in 
Brussels, appointed a committee on international auxiliary language. 
This committee has been very active. At its suggestion the British 
Association for the Advancement of Science appointed a committee 
“to study the practicability of an international language.’”’ The 
Modern Language Association of America has appointed a similar 
committee. The American Classical League has a committee on 
“Latin as an international language for scientific purposes.” The 
British Classical Association also has a committee. 

Is not the time ripe for the American Historical Association to 
take some action in this matter? Medievalists should be especially 
anxious to give Latin a proper hearing. Dense shades of ignorance 
still hang about the history of the Latin language and especially about 
medieval Latin. Any investigation of this question would redound 
to the benefit of medieval studies. It is by no means a wild surmise 
that the Sphinxlike Middle Ages may reveal the answer to the long 
quest for an international language, for they can teach us by the 
experience of a time when a practical form of Latin was the inter- 
national language of Europe among Romanic, Germanic, Slavic, and 
Magyar peoples. 


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VII. THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM 


GEORGE MATTHEW DUTCHER 


Wesleyan University 


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THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM 


By GEORGE MATTUEW DUTCHER 


The most important development in governmental practice on the 
continent of Europe in the eighteenth century prior to the outbreak 
of the French Revolution was the enlightened despotism. This 
movement has sometimes been miscalled the benevolent despotism 
by those who emphasize certain of the humanitarian reforms which 
characterized it, without considering the circumstances and motives 
which lay back of these reforms. In fact, so far as I am aware, 
writers have hitherto confined their attention to registering certain 
acts of the enlightened despotism without attempting to analyze that 
manifestation. 

The element which was new in enlightened despotism was not des- 
potism but enlightenment. The word “enlightenment” as used in 
this connection as well as its German equivalent aufklérung signified 
in a very definite sense rationalism or, more correctly, the recognition 
of the authority of reason. The philosophical eighteenth century re- 
jected divine right as the foundation of the state in favor of reason— 
enlightenment as the basic authority. Enlightenment, in this sense, 
while primarily an intellectual movement, found practical applica- 
tion in the fields of both religion and government. In the field of 
religion it expressed the reaction against mysticism and pietism. It 
was represented in England by the Deistic schoo! culminating in Bo- 
lingbroke and Hume; in France by Voltaire and the Encyclopedists; 
in Germany most distinctively by Wolff. This movement did not 
necessarily limit itself to the ideas propounded by the Deistic group but 
included various forms of refusal to submit to authority in matters of 
church and of personal religion. In the relations of state and church 
it signified the supremacy of the state in all matters not clearly of a 
spiritual character. In this respect the movement culminated in the 
suppression of the Society of Jesus in the Catholic lands. 

On the side of government the problem appeared in its simplest 
form in England where the conditions, arising after the Restoration 
and centering in the Revolution of 1688, developed the theories of 
nonresistance and of passive obedience. The significance of these 
theories, which are so puzzling to the present-day mind, is that out 
of the conflict between king and parliament there eame the recogni- 

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tion of the supremacy of the state quite apart from any individual, 
even though that individual were the monarch. Even the extreme 
Tory, Bolingbroke, recognized as the one valid aim the union of all in 
the service of the state, though he looked to the “patriotic king,” 
not to parliament, for leadership in that union. 

In France the development of the movement prior to the Revolu- 
tion was very largely on the theoretical rather than the practical side, 
and nowhere was the discussion so broad in its scope or carried with 
clearer conviction to its logical conclusions. In Germany the result 
was the reverse of that in England. There, too, the logical develop- 
ment was a recognition of the supremacy of the state, but owing to 
the lack of properly developed self-governing institutions the leader- 
ship in the state was without question vested in the monarch. In 
Germany, too, thanks to Wolff, the frank and full application of the 
rationalistic principles to both church and state was most clearly set 
forth, and, thanks to the practical genius as well as the philosphi- 
cal instinct of Frederick the Great, it received its most complete 
demonstration in the enlightened despotism of that prince. 

In matters of government the enlightened despotism operated pri- 
marily in three fields. The first was in the development of the su- 
premacy of law as a natural correlative to the supremacy of the state. 
This involved the development of uniformity of law and the conse- 
quent movement toward codification, to which Frederick gave par- 
ticular attention. The second phase was in the tendency toward 
equality before the law, both of territorial areas and of classes of the 
population. This movement looked toward centralization and uni- 
formity in administration, and toward the minimizing, if not the abo- 
lition, of privilege. The third field was that of administrative effi- 
ciency which involved the development of systematic administration, 
as increased powers came with the progress of centralization in au- 
thority. Administration had to respond to the demands and tests 
of reason by seeing that the government produced for the state the 
goods which reason approved, especially in matters diplomatic, 
military, financial, and economic. The characteristic form of admin- 
istrative system thus developed was bureaucracy. After this brief 
and inadequate survey or analysis of the enlightened despotism, it 
is my purpose to undertake to trace not the development of theory, 
but the practical working out of events which culminated in the en- 
lightened despotism of Frederick the Great and of Maria Theresa and 
to show how Prussia and Austria, rather than the more advanced 
nations, England and France, became the birthplace of the enlightened 
despotism. 

In England the eivil strife of the Wars of the Roses had wiped 
out large numbers of the nobility and weakened their power. 
The Tudor monarchy which rested on the firm basis of popular 


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THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM 191 


support, devised and executed measures which destroyed the last 
elements of power and privilege of the medieval feudal nobility. 
These results had been achieved before the religious schism of the 
Protestant Revolution reached England, so that king and com- 
mons were able to carry into effect a series of ecclesiastical reforms 
which destroyed the ecclesiastics, as a privileged class, with no more 
serious opposition than such local and spasmodic affairs as the 
Pilgrimage of Grace, or Ket’s Rebellion, or Wyatt’s Insurrection, or 
the Rising of the North. Because the Wars of the Roses had de- 
stroyed the possibility of feudal organization and leadership of an 
opposition, and because of the shrewd policy of national unification 
of the Tudor monarchs, England escaped the disaster of a series of 
wars of religion and enjoyed the opportunity for steady political de- 
velopment free from the strife of Catholic and Protestant. England’s 
insularity, furthermore, permitted a policy of political isolation and 
neutrality so that in Tudor times England kept free from the civil 
wars of religion in France and in Stuart times from the Thirty Years’ 
War in Germany. The traditional emphasis upon the so-called 
Tudor absolutism has exalted the success of the royal policy and 
the growth of monarchical power, but has ignored the no less signifi- 
cant fact of not merely the continued existence, but the steady 
growth of the power of the commons. From Anglo-Saxon days, 
moreover, the English people had been accustomed to the practice 
of local self-government, and the control of local administration was 
never centralized. While not producing a uniformly effective and 
perfect system, it did provide one that responded to the popular 
intelligence and will, and yielded the results the nationrequired. It 
trained the citizen in responsibility and afforded scope for his 
initiative. 

In England it naturally came to pass that, after the elimination of 
feudal privilege in the Wars of the Roses and of ecclesiastical privi- 
iege in the Reformation, the commons were able to wage uncompli- 
cated and effective war on royal prerogative in the great Civil War 
and the Revolution of 1688, and to enter the eighteenth century with 
England fully and clearly organized as a constitutional monarchy, 
thoroughly unified and nationalized to participate in the struggle for 
world empire. Neither royalty nor nobility nor clergy but the com- 
monalty of the realm won for England the splendid triumph sealed 
by the peace of Paris in 1763. 

With this development in England there stand in contrast the con- 
temporary changes and results in France and in the lands on which 
rested the shadow rather than the yoke of the Holy Roman Empire. 

France, in the fifteenth century, emerged victorious from its Hun- 
dred Years’ War with England and triumphant in the efforts of the 
royal power against the forces of feudal provincialism; but, without 


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awaiting the completion of the task of national consolidation, plunged 
rashly into wars of conquest in Italy and of rivalry with Charles V. 
. Ere those wars were ended the Reformation had come to add eccle- 
siastical strife and afford the restless nobility an opportunity, through 
the civil wars of religion, to undermine the royal authority and re- 
cover political power for their selfish advantage. Henry IV asserted 
the principles of religious toleration and of the supremacy of national 
interests and authority, in order that he and his successors might 
give themselves to the task of humbling the feudal nobility and of 
exalting the royal power. The double success of Mazarin in the 
treaties of Westphalia and in compassing the collapse of the Fronde 
assured the triumph of the royal power and of nationalism, but did 
not involve the annihilation or even decimation of the feudal nobility, 
or the abolition or diminution of their privileges. The nobility and the 
clergy alike were compelled to accept the royal authority and to find 
their grandeur no longer in their own glory but in reflecting the 
splendor of royalty. The royal power in France was built upon sub- 
stantial geographical, racial, and linguistic unity and upon an histor- 
ical tradition of success and of realization of national ambitions. In 
contrast with England, however, royalty alone, in France, reaped the 
political fruits of the victory of the alliance of king and people 
against the nobility, for the states-general failed to develop from a 
feudal into a popular representative body or into an effective govern- 
mental institution, and from 1614 onward really ceased to exist. 

The intelligence of the French people, the development of educa- 
tion, the policy of employing successful business men in administra- 
tive capacities, and the organization of local administration were 
such as to furnish the Bourbon monarchy with an efficient staff of 
officials in the various stages of the administrative system. On the 
whole, the provincial and local administrations were more intelligent, 
progressive, and efficient than the national ministries, which were 
permeated with favoritism and servility. Intendants found such 
scope for initiative that they achieved in their provinces reforms 
which the national government dared not undertake, or undertook 
only to fail, as in the case of Turgot. 

In France, therefore, the royal power became the sole institutional 
expression of the unity, aims, and action of the nation. It was 
absolute in the field and its field was the best in Europe. At 1660 
no state on the European continent could compare with France in 
its territorial compactness and its advantageous geographical situa- 
tion, or in the homogeneity of its population and the solidarity and 
efficiency of its governmental system, or in the extent and exploita- 
tion of its economic resources. 

The French monarchy of Louis XIV could readily command 
unquestioning national support in the twofold ambition of securing 


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national strategic frontiers and of achieving the paramountcy in the 
European system and hence the leadership in world empire. Mon- 
archy in France faced no opposition, was confronted by no political 
institutions or moral authority or compelling necessity that would 
hold it to account. Consequently, prior to the humiliations of the 
Seven Years’ War embodied in the treaty of Paris of 1763, even the 
criticisms and protests of the intellectual leaders had passed almost 
unheeded. Now, as the historian looks back over the period following 
the loss of Louisburg in 1745, he can detect many indications of the 
impending collapse, besides the presentiments of the Montesquieus, 
Diderots, Voltaires, Rousseaus, Argensons, and Quesnays of the inade- 
quacy and faultiness of the existing system. 

The output of the French mind on political, social, and economic 
questions in the 15 years beginning with the publication in 1748 of 
Montesquieu’s Spirit of the Laws, and culminating in 1762 in the ap- 
pearance of Rousseau’s Social Contract, was destined not merely to 
compass the downfall of the French monarchy but to remake the 
political life of Europe. In those very years when France was formu- 
lating the thought of the coming age, two monarchs, the Prussian 
and the Austrian, were developing policies of efficiency in monarch- 
ical administration because war had taught them its necessity in the 
struggle for existence and for empire. 

While it is notorious that the two most intelligent and progressive 
countries, England and France, did not exemplify the enlightened 
despotism, that movement had its home and did its most notable 
work in the lands nominally comprised in the Holy Roman Empire. 

By the fifteenth century the Holy Roman Empire had fallen per- 
manently into the hands of the Hapsburgs with their narrow dynas- 
ticism which negatived any movement toward sound national growth 
and unification. In face of the dilatory pettiness of Frederick III and 
the shallow knight errantry of Maximilian, every personage down to 
the humblest in the feudal hierarchy not merely asserted to the full 
his proper rights but also grasped greedily for further privileges and 
added powers. To such members of the nobility of the German 
nation Luther’s famous address was an incomprehensible appeal, but 
the break with Rome was an opportunity eagerly seized for feudal 
aggrandizement and territorial expansion. That they enjoyed this 
liberty in full measure was due to the preoccupation of Charles V 
with multitudinous and world-wide interests such as previous emper- 
‘ors had never contemplated. What Charles V might have accom- 
plished, had his hands been free, was forever too late when his weaker 
successors assumed their narrowed realms. While the emperors were 


1 It is remarkable that the wars of 1740 to 1763 led the Elder Pitt in England and Choiseul in France to 
concentrate governmental effort on the international situation to the almost complete neglect of internal 
interests, even of their possible effect in increasing the international efficiency of the state. 


97244°—25——13 


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too distracted or too weak to erect a unified German national state 
at the expense of the striving feudal princelings, those same princelings 
were wresting every vestige of popular liberties from their subjects. 

The peace of Augsburg of 1555 not only failed, as every effort to 
stabilize society always has, in the purpose of maintaining perma- 
nently the religious status quo, but its restrictive character bound 
the hands of the emperors from undertaking any nationalizing policy, 
while the disintregrating process of feudal aggrandizement persisted 
unchecked. ‘The resulting civil wars of religion, known as the Thirty 
Years’ War, afforded opportumty for each duke or count to seek his 
own fortune, even at the expense of treating with the neighboring 
nations and utilizing their intervention in German affairs. 

The treaties of Westphalia, while establishing a revised and rigid 
ecclesiastical status for the German states, accorded to the various 
intervening neighbors the control of certain German lands and peoples 
and of the country’s economic gateways. Thus, at the very time that 
England and France were entering upon careers of great maritime 
trade and colonial expansion, Germany saw its strategic districts 
expropriated and its once powerful Hansa wrecked. The left bank 
of the Rhine passed under French possession or influence and its 
lower course, as well as that of the Meuse, and the left bank of the 
Ems, was confirmed to the declining power of the Dutch. The 
mouths of the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula fell into the 
hands of the Danes, Swedes, and Poles whose inadequate powers were 
wasted in internecine strife. The nominal limits of the Holy Roman 
Empire were greatly narrowed and the authority of the emperor and 
of the imperial institutions was reduced to a negligible, almost to an 
absurd, minimum. No one of the numerous, practically independent 
principalities within Germany was left with an area or resources that 
promised self-sufficiency, not to mention the possibility of effective 
development and leadership. The Hapsburg emperor abandoned in 
despair any hope of developing effective power in the empire on the 
basis of his Germanic and Slavic lands, and henceforth turned his 
attention to the recovery of the ancient limits of his Hungarian king- 
dom and the development of his new territorial interests in Italy. 

Germany was left a helpless prey to its ambitious neighbors and to 
its own unconscionable and incompetent princes. Church and state 
had broken down and the anarchy of decadent feudalism alone 
remained. The condition of the people was hopeless. War and 
pestilence had reduced the population by half, and left some districts 
almost depopulated. The devastation of the country had been such 
that two centuries had to elapse before agricultural life was restored 
to its condition prior to the Thirty Years’ War. The ruin of the 
towns was such that only 50 free cities, of which but few could boast 
of 10,000 souls, remained to preserve the memory rather than the 


THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM 195 


reality of the once vigorous town life. No institution of popular 
government—national, provincial, or municipal—remained to form a 
nucleus for new political growth. There was dearth of individuals 
with training or experience to fill the administrative posts. Even the 
universities had barely survived the catastrophe and must pass 
through a long period of convalescence before they could once more 
make their contribution to the re-creation of national life. Finally, 
and worst of all, the Thirty Years’ War had left the nation in moral 
collapse. Materials, men, and principles were equally lacking for the 
process of reconstruction. 

Yet, amid this havoc and squalor, one sordid creature had set him- 
self with grim craft and patient guile to rehabilitate his wasted 
inheritance and to procure title to other lands. Almost alone among 
German princes, Frederick William, Margrave-Elector of Branden- 
burg, contrived to extract from the congresses of Westphalia, not 
merely guarantees of his ancestral possessions undiminished, but also 
the recognition of a strange assortment of claims to scattered morsels 
of territory. Thus his possessions, actual or claimed, were the most 
extensive within the empire, though they were scattered widely and 
held under a curious diversity of titles. Out of this assortment of 
territorial and political junk he had the shrewd insight and dogged 
persistence to begin the organization of a consolidated state. 

Where no element or principle of unity existed, Frederick William 
evolved in his own mind the idea of a state to whose creation he gave 
himself unsparingly, and relentlessly required that every subject 
should do likewise. Every element and process in the operation 
were crassly material. Men were not free creatures endowed with 
intelligence, wills, and desires; they were but pawns or slaves to the 
fixed purpose, and that without exception of child, or wife, or self. 
Moral scruple or question of principle was never allowed to cross the 
path. As the historian follows step by step the devious ways of the 
Great Elector he finds his moral sense protesting against almost every 
act, and yet he can not withhold recognition of the resultant achieve- 
ments of territorial extension and consolidation, of unified and abso- 
lute monarchical power, of the army steadily developed in numbers 
and effectiveness, of state treasure amassed, of economic resourses 
steadily developed, and of population both recruited from abroad 
and once more expanding by natural growth. Here were the con- 
ditions out of which grew the enlightened desvotism, the elemental 
processes of its development, and the basic factors in its character. 

Despite their weaker characters, lesser abilities, and peculiar foibles, 
the son Frederick I and the grandson Frederick William I carried 
forward the work with definite though modest contributions to the 
fixed purpose. The great-grandson, Frederick II, was first of these 
Hohenzollerns with the genius and daring for aggressive measures. 


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In his first and second Silesian wars he risked the whole achieve- 
ment of three generations on the chance of a conspicuous conquest, 
and won, as much by his ruthless diplomacy as by military ability. 

None the less this experience confirmed Frederick in the Hohen- 
zollern conception of the state and of the methods of its enhancement. 
He realized that the life and growth of the state were dependent upon 
the maintenance of an effective military machine, which in turn could 
be maintained and operated only with large and readily available 
financial power, which could alone be drawn from the fullest exploi- 
tation of the state’s economic resources by the steady hard work of 
its subjects. 

The ten years’ truce which followed the treaty of Dresden (1745) 
might be described as the adolescent period of the enlightened des- 
potism. It still awaits proper study from this point of view, which 
is more important than the diplomatic one which has customarily 
held the attention. While Frederick devoted himself unremittingly 
during this interval to the improvement of his army and finances and 
to the development of the economic resources of his dominions, his 
defeated opponent, Maria Theresa, was not blind to the lessons of de- 
feat and set herself likewise with indefatigable earnestness to achieve 
in similar ways such results for Austria that the struggle might be re- 
newed, the lost provinces retrieved, and the national honor redeemed. 

In his task Frederick conceived of himself as the first servant of the 
state. Unlike the Bourbon who could identify himself with the state, 
the Hohenzollern had been forced to conceive of the state as an entity 
apart from himself or his subjects though including them. The state 
was something above persons and more permanent and enduring than 
individuals. Such a concept could scarcely have been developed in 
England or France, while it was not an unnatural adaptation from 
the theory of the universal and paramount state which, rather than 
any concrete realization thereof, had subsisted for centuries as the 
Holy Roman Empire. 

It appears, therefore, that the first efforts to practice as a deliber- 
ate policy the basic principles of the enlightened despotism began 
prior to the appearance of any of the important French writings 
mentioned previously and had been interrupted by the Seven Years’ 
War before some of the more significant of them had appeared. 
This earliest phase of enlightened despotism was, then, little more 
than two parallel national campaigns of preparedness in two rival 
states, between two rival dynasties, in anticipation of a desperate 
military struggle for leadership within the German lands. On either 
side the purpose was the strengthening and girding of the state for 
aggrandizement; on the one hand to hold a recently captured prov- 
ince, on the other to recover that lost province, which each regarded 
as the key to the situation. Each side considered that the outcome 


THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM 197 


of the struggle would be determined by the effectiveness of the 
marshaling of the resources of the state in support of its military 
program. The results justified the policy, for Frederick’s own efforts 
retained the province which the consistent policy of his predecessors 
had made it possible for him to seize and it left him in the position 
of primacy in Germany. On the other hand, while Maria Theresa 
failed in these purposes, she emerged from the struggle with her 
powers greatly strengthened in her remaining dominions and in a 
position to recoup military losses in Germany through political gains 
in Italy and Poland. 

It is also important to note that in both cases the monarch was 
dealing with lands devoid of geographic unity and awkwardly situated 
so that they lacked the natural and strategic frontiers which, in whole 
or in large measure, characterized England and France. Military 
power was essential to offset the lack of nature’s gifts, in which 
matter Prussia labored under the more serious handicap. Further- 
more, neither state could compare with England or France in the 
racial and linguistic homogeneity of its population, though in this 
respect the handicap of Austria was the more serious. In still other 
matters both states were at serious disadvantage as compared with 
England and France. Neither could enjoy the advantage of a com- 
pact and harmoniously developed and organized political system, for 
geography denied it to Prussia and race withheld it from Austria. 
Nor could either utilize the priceless heritage of historic solidarity 
with a venerable record of national cooperation in enduring severe 
tests and effecting glorious achievements which constitutes such 
powerful challenge to each new generation to maintain the honor of 
the national name and the security of the national estate. Then, 
again, neither Frederick nor Maria Theresa could rely upon their pres- 
tige, whether as individuals or as the hereditary chiefs of their respec- 
tive dynasties, to rally their subjects to their support. 

In each case, therefore, the consolidation of subjects and resources 
had to be achieved by other means. Policy must serve where nature 
and history failed. It was impossible to bide the time which should 
prove to each province and people its better welfare and larger oppor- 
tunity within the state to which it happened to belong than might 
be its lot in any other possible state. The monarch must prejudge 
such decision and act for himself and his subjects on the assumed 
truth of such conclusion. He must not leave the question open to 
the slightest doubt; he must think and plan and act for himself and 
his subjects, and compel his subjects to cooperate in action without 
thinking. It was not the part of the subject to think, but only to 
obey as if under martial law. Popular or constitutional government 
was impossible of consideration. Neither the church nor feudalism 
could be relied upon as voluntary or self-convinced associates, for 


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apparent self-interest might readily lead them to other conclusions. 
Despotism was the only possible solution, and it must follow a policy 
so obviously reasonable—enlightened—that it should not arouse any 
doubts but should secure, with a minimum of friction or delay, the 
maximum result. 

Neither the monarch nor the monarchy, but the state, was the 
ultimate entity to which all else must be subordinate. The state was 
an utterly intangible and unembodiable thing but none the less ex- 
tremely real. It was that policy which comprehended the necessities 
and ideals whose attainment bound sovereign and subjects alike to 
service for their realization as the absolute general welfare for the 
present and-even more for the future. For the attainment of the 
ends of the state, coin or commodity, toil or life were alike things to 
be expended with frugality or with abandon, as circumstances might 
require. No benevolent sentiment or humane motive, but sheer cold 
reason—enlightenment, was to determine the methods to be pursued, 
or was to be considered as an end for which the state existed, though 
humanitarianism might very possibly chance to be incidental to both 
methods and aims. The ends sought were the permanency, security, 
and aggrandizement of the state, for these were the sole safeguards 
in the struggle for existence which lands and peoples so situated as 
Prussia and Austria have ever felt compelled to seek. 

In conclusion, I can only emphasize the priority in the develop- 
ment of the policies of Frederick the Great and Maria Theresa to the 
appearance of the great creative writings of the French political and 
economic thinkers to whom has customarily been ascribed the initia- 
tive for the enlightened despotism. The exaltation of the state rather 
than of the monarch, the undermining of provincial rights and class 
privileges, the effort to secure uniformity in the incidence of govern- 
mental authority, the demand on the administrative system for effi- 
ciency, the efforts for codification of law and the reform of the judi- 
cial system, the aggressive instead of intriguing diplomacy, the more 
comprehensive demands for military service, the improved military 
organization, the more thorough systematization of the finances, the 
fuller recognition that government finances are dependent upon sound 
economic conditions—these all appeared in Frederick’s policy in the 
first decade of his reign and were promptly copied with more or less 
success by Maria Theresa. On the religious side, the enlightenment 
was a personal, scarcely a governmental, interest with Frederick, and 
altogether abhorrent to Maria Theresa. It was only with Joseph II 
that this element developed as not merely a personal interest but 
also as a wide-reaching governmental policy.’ 


1In this paper no account has been taken of the reforming or enlightened ministers of the eighteenth 
century prior to 1763, for their interesting activities were only accidentally related to the enlightened 
despotism and belong properly to the history of political adventure, e.g. Law, Alberoni and Pombal. 


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IX. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW POLAND 


By COL. LUCIUS H. HOLT, U. S.A. 
United States Military Academy 


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THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW POLAND 


By Lucius H. Hour 


The purpose of this paper is to discuss a single phase of the 
general subject. No attention will be paid, accordingly, to military, 
territorial, economic, and social issues, except as passing reference 
may be necessary to sketch in a background. I shall give a simple, 
direct narrative of Poland’s efforts to solve her political problem. My 
subject, then, more strictly defined, is: The reestablishment of a Polish 
government. 

During the long period of subjection to foreign powers Polish leaders 
had never lost the hope that an opportunity might present itself to 
strike for an independent Poland. ‘Two divergent policies existed— 
the first for a revived Poland under the good auspices of Austria- 
Hungary, whose government had extended liberal political rights 
to Galicia; the second for a revived Polish state living in friendship * 
with the great Slav Russian nation. Both policies were, of course, 
directed toward ultimate independence for Poland. 

The outbreak of the Great War was recognized by the Polish leaders 
as Poland’s opportunity. Two important committees were at once 
formed to represent Polish interests, the first a Polish national coun- 
cil at St. Petersburg, with Wielopolski and Dmowski, Polish represent- 
atives in the Russian Duma, as organizers; and the second a supreme 
national committee at Cracow in Galicia, first with Doctor Leo and soon 
afterwards with Jaworski at its head, both men being Polish deputies © 
to the Austrian Parliament. 

So far as we are concerned, the activities of the Wielopolski- 
Dmowski group during the early years of the war need not delay us 
long. Its importance in the Russian theater was cut short after the 
Russian Revolution in 1917 and the subsequent break-up of Russia 
as a power. It later reorganized as the Polish national committee in 
Lausanne, Switzerland, August 15, 1917, with Dmowski as chairman, 
and Paderewski, Sobanski, Skirment, Zamojski, Piltz, and Fronezak 
as influential members. Later it moved to Paris. The part which 
this committee played in the closing scenes of the war and in the 
political affairs in Poland after the armistice we shall mention in due 
time. 

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We turn now to trace events within the boundaries of the dis- 
tinctively Polish territories. Jaworski’s supreme national committee 
received the support of important political groups in Galicia, and, 
though not officially recognized by Austria-Hungary, became the 
spokesman for the Polish policies and ideals. In collaboration with 
this committee, General Pilsudski undertook the recruiting of Polish 
legions to engage against Russia in conjunction with the Austro- 
Hungarian armies. The committee’s first manifesto ended with 
these words: 

Under Polish command, and in close connection with the chief direction of the 
Austro-Hungarian army, the Polish legions will enter the struggle in order that they 
may also throw upon the scales of the greatest war a deed worthy of the Polish nation, 
as a condition and beginning of a brighter future. 

Notice two facts with respect to this supreme national committee 
andits activities. In the first place, though it had the support of 
influential groups in Galicia, it failed to receive general Polish recog- 
nition, largely because the people feared that its pro-Austrian policy 
might defeat the ultimate object of Polish independence and leave 
Poland at the end of the war bound to Austria and her ally, Germany. 
In the second place, the cooperation of the Polish legions with the 
Austro-Hungarian armies did not imply Polish sympathy with the 
_ general cause and policies of the Central Powers. The effort of the 

Polish legions was directed against Russia, not to achieve victory for 
the Germans, but to free Poland from one of the worst systems of 
tyranny the modern civilized world has known. Under agreement 
with the Austro-Hungarian government, the Polish legions were to 
be maintained as a separate military unit and were to be used only 
against Russia. 

For more than two years the supreme national committee in Poland 
continued its existence, though always unauthorized and unofficial. 
During this period, as we know, Poland became the cockpit of the 
eastern theater of war. The Russian hordes surged across the coun- 
try both to the north and to the south, and were met and hurled 
back by the German and Austrian armies. In their retreat, the 
Russians, on the plea of military necessity, devastated the land. It 
was not until the autumn of 1915 that the German-Austrian armies 
established their lines along the eastern Polish boundaries. 

With their country under German-Austrian control, the members 
of the supreme national committee turned to the governments of the 
Central Powers for recognition, but received little encouragement. 
The German-Austrian armies held the lines, the German-Austrian 
civil authorities took over the entire civil administration of the coun- 
try, German-Austrian agents superintended the systematic requisi- 
tioning of supplies, and the Central Governments began to exert 
pressure upon the Poles to enlist in the German-Austrian bodies for 


THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW POLAND 203 


service on any front. Neither Germany nor Austria entertained fa- 
vorably any idea of Polish independence so long as the country 
yielded supplies and there remained a chance of drawing recruits. 

In the autumn of 1916 two prominent Poles, one in political and 
the other in military life, took steps to hasten the recognition of Pol- 
ish independence. By the middle of August, Pilsudski requested per- 
mission to resign his command of the legionaries; following this 
request August 30 with a memorial to the supreme national commit- 
tee requesting its cooperation in his plan to separate the legionaries 
from the Austro-Hungarian armies and to make them an autonomous 
independent Polish army. September 20, 1916, the Central Powers 
agreed to the principle of Pilsudski’s memorial. In the meanwhile 
Ignace Daszynski, a prominent Socialist deputy in the Austrian Par- 
liament, resigned early in September from the Polish Parliamentary 
Club at Vienna in the endeavor to influence the members of that im- 
portant political club to demand from the Austro-Hungarian govern- 
ment a statement of its intentions with respect to the creation of an 
independent Polish state. A few days later the club did present 
such a memorial to the Austrian Parliament, and Daszynski, Sep- 
tember 19, rejoined the club. 

The action of Daszynski and Pilsudski convinced the German- 
Austrian governments, not only that nothing further was to be gained 
by delay, but that Polish sentiment might be swayed in their 
favor by a decided change of front. They therefore hastened nego- 
tiations. November 5, 1916, the Austro-Hungarian Emperor and 
the German Emperor issued a joint manifesto announcing that they 
had ‘‘resolved to form of these (Polish) territories an independent 
State with a hereditary monarchy and a constitutional government.” 

This manifesto was greeted cordially as the first step toward achiev- 
ing independence for a united Poland. A Polish provisional regent, 
known as the Marshal of the Crown, was appointed; and a council 
of state was organized, composed of all political parties, religious 
creeds, and social classes. On January 15, 1917, the new council of 
state met for the first time. The Polish legions, released by Austria 
from their allegiance, pledged their loyalty to the provisional Polish 
government and became the nucleus of the new Polish army. All 
political, civil, and religious bodies in Poland likewise pledged them- 
selves to support the new government. 

The leading Poles realized, however, that their dreams of a united 
Poland were still far from fulfillment. Germany indicated that Pos- 
nania was not to be a part of the new State; and Austria-Hungary 
announced new political powers to Galicia in a statement which 
showed that Austro-Hungarian control was to be maintained over 
that province. And further, the German governor general remained 
in Poland, interfered in Polish affairs, seized food supplies, transported 


204 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


thousands of Polish laborers to Germany, and demanded that the 
new Polish government raise a large army to fight under German 
command against the Allies. Pilsudski, followed by the bulk of the 
legionaries, not only refused to enlist to aid Germany, but began 
secretly to organize a new military force to act as opportunity offered 
against Germany. He was seized and imprisoned in the fortress of 
Magdeburg. The provisional government, disaffected by the turn of 
events and the lack of sympathy on the part of the Central Powers 
with Polish ambitions, was replaced by a new government September 
12, 1917, composed of a regency council of three (Archbishop Kakow- 
ski, Prince Lubomirski, and Count Ostrowski) and a cabinet headed 
by Kucharewski. Whatever of prestige had remained for the su- 
preme national committee was fatally weakened, for this committee 
was considered responsible for the relations between Poland and the 
Central Powers. 

The climax to German perfidy, however, came in the treaty nego- 
tiation between the Central Powers and Russia at Brest-Litovsk in 
February, 1918. Without consulting the Poles, Germany ceded the 
Polish district of Kholm to the new state of Ukrainia in return for 
promised food supplies. All Poland protested at this conscienceless 
barter. The manifesto of November 5, 1916, was fully discredited; 
evidently it was but a “scrap of paper” in the sight of the Emperor. 
Kucharewski’s cabinet resigned; the regency council published a bitter 
protest to the Central Powers; the Polish delegates in the German 
Reichstag introduced a resolution of protest there; and the Polish 
delegates in the Austro-Hungarian Parliament withdrew their support 
of the von Seydler cabinet, and von Seydler was forced to resign. 
Though the transfer of Kholm was never consummated, knowledge of 
the intention of the Central Powers was sufficient to destroy their 
credit with the Poles. The supreme national committee, its prestige 
now wholly destroyed, passed out of existence. 

One good effect, however, the German-Austrian manifesto had. It 
forced the Polish problem upon the attention of the Allied Powers. 
These powers could not well promise less than the Central Powers had 
promised. Consequently, onJanuary 8, 1918, President Wilson includ- 
ed the independence of Poland as number 13 of his famous fourteen 
points; and five months later (June 3, 1918) the representatives of 
the Entente Powers at Versailles issued a statement favoring “a free 
and independent Poland with access to the sea.”’ 

The tumult of the armistice period was now at hand. We all re- 
member how suddenly the Austro-German power crumbled. Poles 
took immediate advantage of the new situation. During the confused 
days in late October and early November, 1918, separate governments 
were speedily organized in the three great divisions of Poland as the 
grip of the Central Powers relaxed. In Russian Poland, Pilsudski, 


THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW POLAND 205 


returning November 10 from his German prison to receive the univer- 
sal acclaim of his countrymen, accepted from the regency council the 
mission as chief of state to carry his country through to a constitu- 
tional government. A Socialist government, formed by Daszynski 
November 14, gave way a week later to a Socialist cabinet with Mora- 
czewski as premier. In conjunction with Pilsudski, this cabinet bent 
all its energies to defending Poland against its most pressing enemies 
and to securing internal peace and order. In Galicia the Polish depu- 
ties to the old Austrian Parliament met at Cracow October 28, de- 
clared Austrian-Poland a part of the Polish State, and effected a tem- 
porary organization. This Galician group refused later, however, to 
recognize the Socialist government organized at Warsaw. In Posna- 
nia the Polish deputies to the old Reichstag and the Polish members 
of the Prussian chamber met November 18, arranged for a meeting of 
trusted representatives of the public December 3, and effected a tem- 
porary organization. This Posnanian group could not bring itself to 
recognize Pilsudski and the existing Warsaw government. It there- 
upon announced its recognition of the Polish national committee in 
Paris as representative of the interests of German Poland. 

Pilsudski’s problem was immeasurably increased in difficulty for 
the moment by the existence of these other Polish governments. He 
set himself resolutely to the task of establishing in Russian Poland 
a representative government, announcing November 28, 1918, that 
elections would be held January 26, 1919, for a constitutional assem- 
bly, and that every citizen of Poland, without distinction of race, 
religion, nationality, or sex, would have equal political rights and 
would be qualified to participate in the elections. At the same time 
he continued negotiations with the leaders in the other sections of 
Poland with the object of coming to a satisfactory agreement and 
achieving unity. 

Before the date set for these elections in Russian Poland, the unen- 
durable political situation had partially been cleared. Pilsudski and 
his Socialist government had the advantage of being established in 
what was universally recognized must be the heart and capital of the 
new Poland; but the Dmowski group, associated with whom was now 
the world-famous Paderewski, had the allegiance of Posnania and 
much sympathy in Galicia. Paderewski served as the agent in bring- 
ing about a compromise. When he entered Posnania in late Decem- 
ber, 1918, the warmth of his welcome indicated the political complex- 
ion of the people as well as his own personal popularity. With this 
support, and with the common knowledge that his group was favored 
and recognized by the Allies, he passed over into Russian Poland, 
entered Warsaw the first of the new year, and conferred with Pilsud- 
ski. Just what passed between the two is not known, but it is sus- 
pected that Paderewski opened negotiations on the basis of the dis- 


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missal of Moraczewski and of certain other of the Socialist ministers. 
While negotiations were continuing, a group of men, led by Prince 
Sapieha and Colonel Januszajtis, and inspired by hostility to the social- 
ist tendencies of the Pilsudski-Moraczewski government, attempted on 
the night of January 4—5 acoup d’état. The coup was an opéra bouffe 
affair. The conspirators arrested the ministers, but the man sent to 
arrest Pilsudski failed, and the one sent to arrest the chief of staff of 
the army was himself put under arrest by that general. The follow- 
ing day Pilsudski at once secured the release of his ministers and him- 
self imprisoned a few of the suspects, among them Prince Sapieha. 
This attempted coup was not allowed to interfere with the progress 
of the negotiations, and a few days later Paderewski was invited to 
form a cabinet on a coalition basis. Paderewski accepted the mission 
and himself took office as Premier and Foreign Minister January 18, 
1919, just eight days before the elections. 

All interest was now centered upon these elections. Deputies to 
the number of 524 were to be chosen from the whole of Poland. 
Actually, of course, the elections could be held only in those parts of 
Poland under Polish control. To meet this situation, it was agreed 
that exceptional steps should be taken for the other parts of Poland. 
For Galicia 77 deputies were elected, and 94 were called from the old 
Austrian Parliament. In Posnania the election of the 112 deputies 
assigned was not held until June 1, the Posnanian deputies in the old 
German Reichstag sitting in the meanwhile. In Russian Poland, all 
the 241 deputies were elected. The representation of minorities was 
guaranteed by the adoption of a system of proportional representation. 

The results of the election justified the high hopes of those who 
had confidence in the orderly political development of Poland. The 
National Bloc in support of the Paderewski government polled by far 
the largest number of votes. In Warsaw itself this bloc polled 
150,000, the Jewish parties 74,000, and the Socialists only 42,000 
votes, the bloc electing both Paderewski and Dmowski among their 
candidates. Of the total number of 318 representatives elected, the 
National Bloc had 109. Two weeks later, February 9, 1919, the first 
meeting of this constitutional assembly was inaugurated by religious 
ceremonies at the Church of St. John in Warsaw; and February 21, 
1919, official announcement was issued that the Allies recognized the 
Polish government headed by Pilsudski as President and Paderew- 
ski as Premier. 

These steps marked the completion of one distinct stage in Poland’s 
progress toward the establishment of a new government. Her peo- 
ple had chosen a representative assembly, and her government had 
received the recognition of the victorious Allies. Much, however, 
still remained to be done. Perhaps, if we summarize briefly the gen- 
eral situation, the difficulties will be more apparent. 


THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW POLAND 207 


In the first place, Poland was surrounded by active enemies each 
of whom claimed territory which Poland regarded as distinctively 
Polish. The Germans had not given up Posnania; the Czechoslovaks 
were disputing the possession of the Teschen district; a shadowy 
Ukrainian government was holding eastern Galicia; the Soviet lines 
were still drawn too near Warsaw; and the Lithuanians expected 
Wilna. The allied recognition had contained no assurance of Poland’s 
boundaries, so the Government felt it necessary to take active meas- 
ures to secure what it considered to be Polish rights. Add to this 
territorial question the social unrest both among the laboring classes 
and among the peasantry; the racial antagonisms engendered by the 
presence of large self-conscious units of different blood and customs, 
as Jews, Ruthenians, and Germans; and throw over the whole scene 
the pall of a universal economic distress so paralyzing that we in 
this fat country can not appreciate it; and you may gain some faint 
conception of the general situation that confronted the Polish Gov- 
ernment in the spring of 1919. 

Although the Assembly had as its original purpose the creation of 
a constitution, the necessities of the situation prevented it from pro- 
ceeding at once to this task. Through the spring and summer of 
1919, all attention was concentrated upon the proceedings of the 
Peace Conference at Paris and Versailles. It was essential that 
Poland’s boundaries should be assured before Poland’s constitution 
could be drawn. Paderewski in person argued the Polish cause 
before the representatives of the Powers. Once, discouraged, he 
tendered his resignation to the Assembly (May 13, 1919), but the 
Assembly expressed its confidence in him and he retained his position. 
As Premier he signed the treaty of June 28, 1919, unsatisfactory as 
it appeared to be. During July he presented the treaty to the 
Assembly. July 31, 1919, the Assembly duly ratified the treaty. 
Poland’s position was thus secured by an international covenant, 
signed by friends and enemies alike. 

Even after the ratification of this treaty the Assembly found it 
impossible to proceed rapidly to the work of framing a constitution. 
Territorial questions were still to be settled, some by plebiscites and 
some by the Powers in the future; economic conditions presented 
constantly new problems calling for consideration and action; and 
military operations, especially on the Russian front, continued on a 
large scale. December 7, 1919, Paderewski resigned, being succeeded , 
a week later by Skulski. 

In the spring and summer of 1920 came the terrific Polish-Bolshe- 
vik campaign. At its height, Skulski was forced to resign June 9 in 
favor of a cabinet headed by Grabski. A month later, July 9, 
Grabski resigned and was succeeded by the peasant premier, Witos. 
We know how the Bolshevik menace was turned back, and how 


208 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


negotiations for a Russian-Polish peace were finally carried to a suc- 
cessful conclusion. During all this troubled period, of course, slight 
progress could be made toward framing a permanent constitution. 

Our story of the reestablishment of a Polish government must, 
then, be incomplete, for at the present date the constitution has not 
been adopted. Since the Russian-Polish armistice, however, the 
Assembly has been able to devote more time to its chief task. The 
document under consideration contains 6 chapters and 131 articles. 
Chapter 1, containing articles 1 and 2, states the form of government, 
which will be that of a republic. Chapter 2, containing articles 3 to 
38, inclusive, deals with the legislature and prescribes a bicameral 
body. Chapter 3, containing articles 39 to 75, inclusive, deals with 
the executive and his functions and powers. Chapter 4, including 
articles 76 to 88, inclusive, deals with the judiciary. Chapter 5, 
including articles 89 to 130, inclusive, deals with citizenship and the 
general rights and duties of citizens. Chapter 6, containing a single 
article, prescribes the method of amending and changing the constitu- 
tion. Of the entire document, 113 of the articles have been agreed 
upon by the Assembly and have passed tworeadings. Articles 35 and 
36, concerning the upper house of the legislature, and article 39, con- 
cerning the election of the President of the Republic, are at present 
under discussion. 

With this statement, which brings the story up to include the latest 
available information, I leave my outline of Poland’s measures to 
reestablish a government. The country’s many other problems—ter- 
ritorial, military, social, and economic—still present the utmost diffi- 
culties, but the problem of a government is almost solved. 


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X. THE SETTLEMENT AT PLYMOUTH CONTEMPLATED 
BEFORE 1620 


By LINCOLN N. KINNICUTT 
Massachusetts Historical Society 


97244°—25——14 209 


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THE SETTLEMENT AT PLYMOUTH CONTEMPLATED BEFORE 1620 


By Lrncoitn N. Kinnicutr 


Was it by mere chance that the Pilgrims found Plymouth Harbor 
and Plymouth, or had schemes and plans been made by those most 
interested in the colonization of New England to attempt to bring 
them to this very spot? I am inclined to believe that before the 
Mayflower sailed from England Sir Ferdinando Gorges had made plans 
which, if successful, would lead to a settlement in Plymouth Harbor, 
a locality about whieh he was well informed and which he had reasons 
to believe was the most favorable location on the Massachusetts 
coast. 

We owe much to Sir Ferdinando Gorges, much more than he has 
ever received, and in speaking of him as the father of New England 
colonization we give him a title he well deserves. His whole life is an 
interesting story, full of interesting episodes, stirring events, and nar- 
row escapes from political intrigues and combinations, and even from 
royal displeasure. A man of sound judgment, of infinite resource- 
fulness and pertinacity, the motto on his coat of arms “‘Constans et 
Fidelis’? was more truly symbolical of his character than is often 
found. 

He was the son of Edward Gorges of Wraxall and a descendant of 
Ranoly de Gorges, who came from Normandy to the conquest of Eng- 
land in 1066. The exact date of his birth is not known but he was 
born about 1562. His whole life must have been influenced by the cor- 
rupt age in which his early manhood was passed, when royal favoritism, 
intrigue, and bribery, were apparently the only paths to position, 
power, or wealth. 

Very little is known of Sir Ferdinando Gorges until 1588. At that 
time he was captain in the English army in Flanders, and was taken 
prisoner by the Spanish, probably at the siege of Sluis, but was 
immediately exchanged. The next year, 1589, he took part in the 
siege of Paris, where he was severely wounded. Documents tell us 
that he was borne from the walls by Henry of Navarre himself. In 
1595 he was ordered to take charge of the erection of fortifications at 
Plymouth, and in 1596 he was appointed captain and keeper of the 
new fortification and of the island of St. Nicholas. He held this 

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212 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


most important post for nearly 40 years, for Plymouth was deemed 
a vulnerable point for Spanish invasion. Queen Elizabeth, James I, 
and Charles I thus bore witness to their confidence in his ability and 
trustworthiness. In this long service there was one interim of three 
years, probably the most fateful years in his whole life, for he was a 
close friend of the Earl of Essex and had: joined with him, although, 
I believe, unwillingly, in his conspiracy against the Queen. If he 
did betray his friend and benefactor, which was the belief and always 
remained the belief of the Puritans, although to-day doubted by 
many, it was the blot on his escutcheon. 

The Earl of Essex for some incomprehensible reason was the great 
hero of the Puritans, and they ever remembered that tragic, stormy 
scene at his trial when Essex, turning to Gorges, said, “I pray you 
answer me, did you advise me to leave my enterprise?’ And Gorges, 
answering, “I think I did.” Essex replied, “Nay, it is no time to 
answer now upon thinking, these are not things to be forgotten. Did 
you indeed so counsel me?’ And Gorges replying, “I did,’’ he sealed 
the fate of his friend and forged a weapon that was used many years 
after to destroy practically his own great ambitions and many of the 
advantages which he had hoped to obtain in the New World. Essex’s 
despairing final appeal to his judges was never forgotten by the Puri- 
tan party: “My Lords, look upon Sir Ferdinando and see if he looks 
like himself. All the world shall sée by my death and his life whose 
testimony is the truest.” 

After the execution of Essex, Gorges, while in prison, expecting a 
sentence of death, wrote a bold, pathetic defense against the charge 
that he had betrayed Essex, his friend. After one year’s imprison- 
ment he was pardoned, and on the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603 
was reinstated in his former command at Plymouth. 

If this was an age of intrigue, corruption, and bribery, it was also 
the age of adventure, discovery, and exploration. Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert and Sir Walter Ralegh belonged to that age and Gorges was 
their kinsman through the Champernouns. Spain was reaping a 
rich harvest from her conquests in Mexico and South America, and 
Sir Ferdinando had intimate knowledge of the great riches brought 
into English harbors by captured Spanish ships, for he was one of the 
commissioners to whose custody these great riches were intrusted. 

In 1602 Gosnold returned from Buzzards Bay with a valuable cargo 
of furs and sassafras. In 1603 Martin Pring came from Cape Cod 
Bay with glowing accounts of the richness of the country, and in 1605 
Weymouth explored a part of the coast of Maine, and on his return 
brought with him five savages, of whom Sir Ferdinando took charge 
of three. One of them, he tells us, was Tisquantum (Squanto) who, 
15 years later, rendered to the Pilgrims indispensable service. From 
this time until his death, 40 years later, he devoted his extraordinary 


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THE SETTLEMENT AT PLYMOUTH CONTEMPLATED BEFORE 1620 213 


energy, his influence, and his wealth to the colonization of New 
England. 

Although some historians have questioned this statement in regard 
to Tisquantum, nevertheless we certainly have Gorges’s own state- 
ment that he had Squanto with him for three years in England, and 
in another part of his Narration, speaking of the letter containing 
news from Dermer that he had found Tisquantum in Maine, he writes 
of him as “one of my Indians.” By this statement Tisquantum must 
have been under his care at some previous time. Gorges also tells 
us, in the same Narration, that he made his Indians give him 
minute details of their native places, of their rivers, of their lands, 
their chiefs, and their enemies. 

Sir Ferdinando Gorges must have known much about Patuxet 
(Plymouth) and Plymouth Harbor, and even about Massasoit, for 
Tisquantum was a native of Patuxet and a subject of Massasoit. 
It is also reasonable to suppose that Sir Ferdinando had other very 
early knowledge of Plymouth, for he was indefatigable in searching 
for, and acquiring, all information possible of northern Virginia, his 
territory. 

We know that Martin Pring was at New Plymouth in 1603, living 
there for six weeks with 40 of his men, naming it Mount Aldworth 
and calling the harbor Whitsons Bay. He gave minute descriptions 
of the place and harbor, of the surrounding country, and of the prod- 
ucts of the land. 

Samuel de Champlain’s account of Plymouth, in which he named 
it Port de Malabarre, was published in 1613. 

In the month of April, 1614, Captain John Smith, with whom we 
associate Virginia and Pocahontas far more than New England and 
Plymouth, although he gave New England its name, was sent by a 
few English merchants to the north part of Virginia “to take whales 
and make tryalls of a myne of Gold and Copper.”’ In August, 1614, 
on Smith’s return to England he immediately reported his adven- 
tures and his discoveries to Sir Ferdinando Georges, “‘his honorable 
friende.’’ From this circumstance it is a fair supposition that Gorges 
had taken much interest in John Smith’s comtemplated voyage and 
may have given him certain instructions in respect to exploring the 
New England coast. 

To Sir Ferdinando Gorges he would have given the description and 
the name of the various towns afterwards published, and of Ply- 
mouth he says, “‘then came you to Accomack (Plymouth), an excel- 
lent good harbor, good landing, and no want of anything but indus- 
trious people. ” 

On the map that Captain John Smith published the next year, 
when English names were substituted, is inscribed ‘The most remark- 


214 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


able parts thus named by the high and mighty Prince Charles, Prince 
of Great Britain.” 

At this time Prince Charles was only 15 years old, and probably 
the English names adopted were suggested to him by some one much 
interested in that part of the New World. From whatever source it 
came, the rechristening of Accomack as Plymouth must have been 
pleasing to Sir Ferdinando, for he loved old Plymouth well, where 
he had already spent nearly 20 years of his life. 

John Smith’s glowing account of New England, with its wonderful 
climate, its fertile soil and its mineral wealth, the abundance of fish, 
birds, and animals (he called Massachusetts “the Paradise of all these 
parts’), aroused the mercantile and venturesome spirit of the Eng- 
lish, and spurred Sir Ferdinando to greater efforts to accomplish what 
had become the chief object of his life—the colonization of New Eng- 
land and the establishing on its shores of at least one plantation. 

He had already experienced many failures. His first attempt was 
in 1605, when he sent a ship under the command of Capt. Henry 
Challons, with the intention of settling a colony on the coast of 
Maine. This was a complete failure, owing to Captain Challons’ dis- 
obedience of orders. In 1607, in cooperation with Chief Justice Pop- 
ham, Gorges attempted the Popham Colony, so called, the earliest 
settled colony in New England, for it existed for one year, but, as 
we know, was abandoned in the fall of 1608. 

The attempts were made under the charter of the Plymouth Com- 
pany, first granted in 1606, which company in 1620 was called the 
Council of New England. Sir Ferdinando Gorges was practically the 
Plymouth Company and the Council of New England, for without his 
leadership and his constant petitions to Parliament and to the throne 
the Plymouth Colony would probably have been overshadowed by 
the South Virginia or the London Company. 

After receiving the report of Capt. John Smith and after the 
arrival of Smith’s second ship, commanded by Capt. Thomas Hunt, 
which had also been sent to Plymouth to secure a cargo for the Old 
World, Sir Ferdinando began more active operations. 

Two months after the arrival of Smith at Plymouth Sir John 
Hawkins, who had been chosen president of the Plymouth Council, 
attempted a voyage to New England which was unsuccessful, and 
Gorges opened negotiations with Captain Smith to undertake the 
planting of a colony on the Massachusetts coast. Smith was sup- 
plied with two ships, but, when only a short distance from England, 
the larger was disabled and he was obliged to return. Repairs 
being made he again started, but his ship was captured by a French 
cruiser and he was carried a prisoner into a French port. In 1616 
Gorges dispatched another ship under Richard Vines, with the same 
unsuccessful result. In 1617 Smith, who had returned to England, 


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THE SETTLEMENT AT PLYMOUTH CONTEMPLATED BEFORE 1620 215 


was supplied by the ccuncil with three small ships to make again a 
venture, but the ships were becalmed and after much delay returned 
to the harbor and the attempt was given up. 

One of the two ships supplied to John Smith in 1615 was under 
the command of Capt. Thomas Dermer, who also was in the employ 
of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, and this small vessel reached Newfound- 
land in safety. We know but little of Captain Dermer for the next 
two years, although it is supposed he remained in Newfoundland, 
for in 1618 Gorges received communication from him in Newfound- 
land that he had found Tisquantum. Gorges immediately gave 
instructions to have Tisquantum sent to him, and in the latter part 
of 1618 Captain Dermer, with Tisquantum, arrived in England. 
Gorges states in his Narration that after consulting with Dermer in 
relation to “particulars of highest consequence and best considera- 
tions,’”’ he sent him back as fast as one Gorges’s own ships could be 
made ready, and Tisquantum went with him. 

This was early in 1619. Dermer was to meet Captain Rowcroft, 
who had been sent out the year before, and was to carry out certain 
specific plans and wait for further instructions from Gorges. Dermer 
did not find Rowcroft, but, as Gorges narrates, ‘“‘so resolved he was 
that he ceased not to follow the designs already agreed upon,” part 
of which evidently was to explore Tisquantum’s own country, Ply- 
mouth. From a letter written to Sir Samuel Purchase, dated 
December 27, 1619 we know Dermer certainly did this important 
work, guided by Tisquantum. 

The land in the immediate vicinity of Plymouth he found unoccu- 
pied, for the Patuxet Tribe, whose home it was, had been entirely 
swept away by the so-called plague. ‘Tisquantum found not one of 
his own tribe remaining. They travelled two days’ journey to the 
west, and two Indian kings came to visit them, probably Massasoit 
and his brother, Quadaquina. 

Evidently Gorges was kept well informed in regard to Dermer’s 
movements, for he states that Dermer sent him a journal of his pro- 
ceedings and a description of the coast all along as he passed. From 
Plymouth he went to Capawac, Marthas Vineyard, probably in search 
of a mine, and then returned to Monhegan. Leaving Tisquantum in 
Maine, he went to Virginia, but, returning in the spring of 1620, on 
his way north to Monhegan he again visited Plymouth and probably 
Tisquantum joined him there. It is this visit which is referred to by 
Governor Bradford in his History of Plymouth Plantation. 

This Mr. Dermer was hese the same year that these people came, as appears by a 
relation written by him and given me by a friend bearing date June 30 Anno. 1620. 
And they came in November following, so ther was but 4 months difference. In 
which relation to his honored friend, he hath these passages of this very place. 


I will first begine (saith he) with that place from whence Squanto, or Tisquantum, 
was taken away; which in Capt. Smiths mape is called Plimoth; and I would that 


216 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Plimoth had the like commodities. I would that the first plantation might hear be 
seated, if ther come to the number of 50 persons, or upward. Otherwise at Charlton, 
because ther the savages are less to be feared. The Pocanawkits, which live to the 
west of Plimoth, bear an invetrate malice to the English, and are of more streingth 
than all the savages from thence to Penobscote. * * * The soil of the borders of 
this great bay, may be compared to most of the plantations which I see in Virginia. 

In the botume of the great bay is store of codd and basse, or mulett, etc. But 
above all he comends Pacanawkite for the richest soyle, and much open gronnd fitt 
for English graine, etc. 


In 1619 Thomas Dermer remained in Tisquantum’s country for 
five or six days at least, exploring the country about Plymouth. 

It would be most interesting to know more about this letter, to 
know to whom it was written, and for what purpose. Did Governor 
Bradford see it before he sailed from England? We should like to 
know the exact contents of the letter, for Governor Bradford omitted 
part. Probably it was written to Sir Ferdinando Gorges, for Dermer 
was in his employ, and as the Mayflower did not sail from England 
until September, the letter could have been given to Bradford before 
that time. Evidently Capt. Thomas Dermer had decided that Plym- 
outh was the place above all others to make a settlement, and 
from this letter he apparently made a much closer study of the 
locality and all the surrounding conditions than he had made on his 
first visit the year before. He speaks particularly about the Poca- 
nawkets. This was the name given to the Indians who comprised 
the Pocanawket Confederacy, and included at least nine tribes living 
in Bristol, Plymouth, and Barnstable Counties and part of Worcester 
County. This confederacy also exercised some authority in Nan- 
tucket and Marthas Vineyard, and Massasoit was their chief, and 
Plymouth and all the land about Plymouth was their territory. 
Dermer speaks of them as the strongest of all the confederacies and 
tells of the malice they bore to the English, and the reason. But 
he also speaks of Squanto, cr Tisquantum, as having enough influence 
among them to save his life, and Squanto was one of their own tribe. 
After all, Dermer commends Pocanawket, an Indian village two days’ 
journey from Plymouth, for the richest soil and much open ground 
fit for English grain. 

Did he rely on Tisquantum being able to establish friendly rela- 
tions, should a colony be established at Plymouth? If he did so, he 
certainly judged wisely, as subsequent events proved. 

Sir Ferdinando Gorges, writing in 1622, says of Thomas Dermer: “ He 
remained in the discovery of that coast two years, giving us good con- 
tent in all his undertakings; and after he had made the peace between 
us and the savages that so much abhorred our nation for the wrongs 
done them by others, as you have heard; but the fruit of his labor in 
that behalf we as yet receive to our great commoditie, who have a 
peaceable plantation at the present time among them, where our 


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THE SETTLEMENT AT PLYMOUTH CONTEMPLATED BEFORE 1620 217 


people both prosper, and live in good taking and assuredness of their 
neighbors.” (This was Plymouth.) 

This good understanding, however, was in my opinion all accom- 
plished by Tisquantum, for from the first he seemed to have much 
influence among the Indians. After this visit to Plymouth, Dermer 
went again to Monhegan and in July or in August again returned to 
Cape Cod Bay, and Bradford states that Tisquantum was with him. 

This brings us to within a comparatively few weeks before the Pil- 
grims were expected to land on our coast, for their plans had been 
made for a departure from England about July 23,1620. As we know, 
the plans were unexpectedly changed. If they had landed on Cape 
Cod at the expected time they could scarcely have failed of meeting 
Captain Dermer. 

Capawick (Marthas Vineyard) seems to have been one of the objec- 
tive points for many of Sir Ferdinando Gorges’s ventures, and this was 
on account of supposed mines which, from Indian tales, he believed 
would be discovered on Marthas Vineyard or Nantucket. 

At this time the first object for which he was striving was to find 
the most desirable place on the Massachusetts coast to plant a colony 
and then to establish it; and his second object was to find new sources 
of wealth in the New World. 

In 1619 Captain Dermer had explored every harbor from the Penob- 
scot to Cape Cod, according to Gorges, and had visited Capawick. 
In 1620 he had again explored the country about Plymouth, had 
decided it was the best place for a colony and had so written, and 
then, going to Monhegan, had returned to the Cape Cod coast and to 
Capawick, where he supposed he had established friendly relations 
with the Indians. 

If Dermer wished for any reason to meet the Pilgrim ship, Marthas 
Vineyard and Nantucket offered many advantages for obtaining 
early information of its arrival. It would have been almost impos- 
sible for a ship to approach Cape Cod from any direction without it 
being known, at least by the Indians, and Squanto was with Dermer 
as an interpreter and intermediator. The distance across the Cape 
at a point opposite Capawick is very short. 

It has been the accepted theory that Captain Jones of the May- 
flower was bribed by the Dutch to prevent the Pilgrims from landing 
in the vicinity of the Hudson River, but this suspicion rests solely on 
the statement of Nathaniel Morton in his Memorial—“That they 
(the Dutch) had fraudulently hired the said Jones for this purpose.” 
In a note he makes the positive assertion ‘‘of this plot between the 
Dutch and Mr. Jones I have late and certain intelligence.” The source 
of ‘‘this late and certain intelligence” has never come to light. The — 
assertion rests on one man’s judgment of the value of this intelligence. 
Morton’s Memorial was written 50 years after the landing of the Pil- 


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grims, and it is supposed that he obtained his information from his 
friend Thomas Willet, who had access to the Dutch archives. Sir 
Ferdinando Gorges has also been suspected of conspiracy with the 
commander of the Mayflower, and certainly his early education had 
not failed to teach him that bribery was legitimate and almost a 
virtue. 

Admitting, however, that the captain might have been bribed by 
the Dutch, this would not preclude the possibility of his being bribed 
also by Sir Ferdinando, and we must consider how much more valu- 
able the result of this supposed bribery would have been to Gorges 
than to the Dutch. 

No documents or letters have been discovered, so far as I have any 
knowledge, showing any correspondence between Sir Ferdinando 
Gorges and the Pilgrims, but there are a few established facts which 
indicate that there may have been some private understanding be- 
tween some of the English partners and Sir Ferdinando, and this com- 
plete silence on his part, for which there were some very adequate 
reasons, is in itself suspicious. 

In 1619-20 the Puritan party in England had become very strong. 
The Reform Parliament was almost a Puritan Parliament, for the 
ghost of Essex was there demanding reparation and reprisal upon Sir 
Ferdinando Gorges. If the King had not dissolved that Parliament, 
Sir Ferdinando would have suffered severely in his rights and 
privileges in the New World, but enough had been accomplished to 
make him recognize that the past was not forgotten. 

Although the Pilgrims or Separatists were only a very small part of 
the Puritan party, nevertheless they were Puritans, and if it were 
known that Gorges was attempting to influence them to settle under 
his charter undoubtedly it would have encountered bitter opposi- 
tion, and consequently any correspondence or understanding neces- 
sarily would have been well guarded. 

Sir Ferdinando Gorges must have known all about the negotiations 
which had been carried on for about three years between the South 
Virginia Company or London Company and the Pikrims. Among 
his sources of information was John Gorges, his eldest son, who had 
married a daughter of the Countess of Lineoln, who took a decided 
interest in American colonization; moreover the second patent from 
the South Virginia Company to the Pilgrims was taken out in the name 
of John Whincop, a member of the family of the Countess of Lincoln. 

It is certainly reasonable to suppose that Sir Ferdinando Georges, 
knowing the character and standing of the body of men who proposed 
to establish a colony in the New World, would have had them settle 
in that territory which came under his charter, and there are a few 
facts which indicate that there may have been some private under- 
standing between some of the leaders and Sir Ferdinando. 


THE SETTLEMENT AT PLYMOUTH CONTEMPLATED BEFORE 1620 219 


November 10 or 11, 1620, the Pilgrims sighted Cape Cod. On the 
11th, only a few hours afterwards, even before they landed, the 
memorable Compact was drawnup. The preamble follows: ‘Having 
undertaken for the glorie of God and advancemente of the Christian 
faith and honor to our King and countrie a voyage to plant the first 
colonie in the northern parts of Virginia.’’ This seems to permit a 
possible understanding with the North Virginia Company, and that 
New England had been considered before the departure from 
England or Holland. And Winslow writes in his brief Relation, 
referring to the first plans of the Pilgrims, “for our eye was upon 
the most northern parts of Virginia.” 

If, as it is supposed, the Pilgrims, many months before they left 
England, had decided to plant their colony near the Hudson River, 
it seems almost inconceivable that such men as Bradford, Winslow, 
and Standish would so suddenly have changed their preconceived 
plans, unless a settlement on the Massachusetts coast had previously 
been considered. It is certainly not consistant with their known 
characters. A settlement near the Hudson River would have been 
in the South Virginia territory. 

Almost immediately after it was known that the landing had been 
made at Plymouth, a patent was issued to them by Sir Ferdinando 
Georges without, so far as is known, any previous attempt to discuss 
conditions or privileges, and was immediately accepted by the settlers. 
And the question still arises, when did Governor Bradford first see 
that letter written by Dermer to his “honored friend ?”’ 

No doubt can exist that the Pilgrims were well acquainted with 
Capt. John Smith’s glowing description of New England and of 
that part of the coast where they had first landed, and that they had 
his map to consult. Also without doubt they knew of Champlain’s, 
Pring’s and Gosnold’s descriptions, and probably had seen the letter 
of Capt. Thomas Dermer to Samuel Purchase. 

Is it unreasonable to suppose that Capt. Thomas Dermer was on 
the Massachusetts coast and at Plymouth for some definite object 
only a short time before the Pilgrims’ expected landing? It certainly 
would have been a wise move of Sir Ferdinando Gorges to have one 
of his captains ready to meet them, or to try to intercept them on 
their approach to this country. He would have been able to give 
them all the advantage of his knowledge and experience. 

If it had not been for unforseen accident, Capt. Thomas Dermer 
undoubtedly would have met the Pilgrims on their arrival at Cape 
Cod, and they, judging from their attempts to find a suitable harbor, 
would gladly have accepted any guidance, even if unexpected, and 
Dermer undoubtedly would have taken them to Plymouth, the place 
where he had expressed a wish that “the first plantation might hear 


be seated.” 


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220 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Taking into consideration that for 14 years, ever since 1606, Sir 
Ferdinando Gorges had attempted unsuccessfully to settle a colony 
under the North Virginia charter, would he not have used all the 
means in his power to establish this Plymouth colony? The project 
had been considered in England and Holland for three years. He 
knew the standing and the character of the men who composed it, 
and who proposed to make this settlement. He knew that their 
chief aim was not wealth but to secure a permanent home. And 
would he not most naturally have attempted to influence their leaders 
or put in their way the means of going? For two years he had been 
planning just such an enterprise. He had already been much influ- 
enced by Capt. John Smith’s glowing accounts of Massachusetts, 
and now Dermer supplemented Smith’s story. Pring and Gosnold 
had told their tales of the country in the vicinity of Cape Cod, and 
had brought back most substantial results. Sir Ferdinando Gorges 
had in his possession much valuable information to give to the Pil- 
grims, and he without doubt took measures to have them receive all 
the information possible. Champlain’s and Smith’s maps had both 
been published, and both described Plymouth Harbor minutely. 

if there was any understanding with Sir Ferdinando Gorges, the 
scheme was almost frustrated by an encounter with the Indians on 
the Isle of Capawick, where Dermer was so severely wounded that 
he was obliged to go immediately to Virginia. There he shortly after- 
wards died from his wounds. But the captain and pilot of the May- 
flower remained, and Squanto; and if the officers of the ship had been 
bribed by Gorges to land the Pilgrims on the Massachusetts coast in 
the vicinity of Cape Cod, Sir Ferdinando would have given them all 
necessary information that he had received from Dermer in regard to 
Cape Cod Bay. 

Governor Bradford tells us that ‘‘on the 6th. of December they 
sent out their shallop again, intending to circulate that deep bay of 
Cape Cod,” and their pilot, a Mr. Coppin was with them. After thus 
spending two days ‘‘they decided to hasten to a place that their 
pilot did assure them was a good harbor” of which he had knowledge 
“and they might fetch it before night.”” About the middle of the 
afternoon he told them he saw the harbor, but in encountering the 
storm the mast of the boat was broken and when finally approach- 
ing the entrance to Plymouth Harbor, obscurely seen through the 
darkness and the storm, Governor Bradford writes that Coppin sud- 
denly exclaimed, ‘‘the Lord be merciful unto them for his eyes had 
never seen that place before,’”’ but half blinded by the night and the 
tempest he probably was himself deceived. He had recognized the 
harbor only a few hours before the approach of the storm, and it was 
the only harbor which he could “fetch” in the time he himself had 
specified. If he was following any instructions or guidance received 


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THE SETTLEMENT AT PLYMOUTH CONTEMPLATED BEFORE 1620 221 


before he left England, he certainly had followed them, for he brought 
the Pilgrims to the exact spot selected by Dermer for a “first colony 
to be established on the Massachusetts coast,’’ and Dermer had so 
written to those most interested in this colonization. Call it coinci- 
dence if you will, but it was very fortunate for Sir Ferdinando Gorges. 

Two months afterwards, when the Pilgrims first met Massasoit at 
Plymouth, they were met by his two messengers, Samoset and 
Squanto, with the first cordial greeting of the New World to the Old 
World, ‘Welcome Englishman.” 

I can not claim that Sir Ferdinando Gorges was the father of 
Plymouth, but he had provided for her a habitation, he had provided 
for her nurses, and I believe he was the consultant physician before 
her birth.! 

1I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to James Phinney Baxter for information derived from his 
“Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of Maine,” published by The Prince Society in 1890, and to 


Worthington C. Ford for information derived from his notes in ‘‘The History of Plymouth Plantation,” 
published by the Massachusetts Historical Society in 1912. 


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XI. CAPITALISTIC AND SOCTALISTIC TENDENCIES 
IN THE PURITAN COLONIES 


By CLIVB DAY 
Yale University 


223 


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CAPITALISTIC AND SOCIALISTIC TENDENCIES IN THE PURITAN 
COLONIES 


_By Curve Day 


If the Pilgrim of 300 years ago could return to life and survey the 
activities of the present world, what change would strike him most, 
what features of our life would be to him least intelligible? Human 
nature, in the individual, is much the same. He would not agree 
with our theology, and would differ with us on points of ethics, but 
he would be well prepared to dispute the points of difference with 
us, and might possibly be able to give us advice that would be to 
our advantage. Our politics would seem to him not very different 
from his; would seem, maybe, not very much better. Our system of 
social classes has altered in some respects, but it remains still much 
like that in which he lived. Some of our attainments, notably in the 
arts and sciences, would indeed astonish him. But that aspect of 
our life which would most surprise him when he saw its superficial 
manifestations, and would most perplex him when he sought to 
understand its operation, would be, I feel sure, our material civiliza- 
tion. Even when he had become used to the externals—the food 
and drink and clothing and housing; the omnipresent engine, whether 
steam or gasoline or electric, and the inevitable machine operated 
by it—he would find himself at the threshold of a deeper problem. 
It would be his task, namely, to understand an organization far more 
elaborate and delicate than any machine, the organization of the 
human beings by whom and for whom the machines are run. The 
simple system of economic cooperation which prevailed in England, 
or Holland, or America in the seventeenth century would scarcely 
suggest to him the intricacies of the present system. Nor could he 
turn to Aristotle ‘or enlightenment, as he might still in a matter of 
ethics or politics. Economics is still a young science. 

Imagine now the amazement of our Pilgrim when he is assured 
that he bears a share of personal responsibility for these changes in 
economic life; that he, as a Puritan, was an important contributor 
to the process of economic revolution. Such is the suggestion soberly 
advanced by a German scholar of standing, Max Weber, who until 
his death this past year was professor at Heidelberg. He follows 

97244°—25——15 225 


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back the line of development which has led to our present elaborate 
organization, and his path takes him to early Massachusetts. I do 
not follow him in his conclusions, as will appear in the course of this 
paper. To understand his argument, and to criticize it effectively, 
we must first review the general subject of capitalism, the subject to 
which he and other German scholars have devoted so much attention 
in recent years. 

“Capitalism” is a vague term, yet I think its meaning is suffi- 
ciently obvious for present purposes.!’ It implies a dominance at 
the present time of capital, just as we might use the terms feudalism 
or terrorism to suggest the dominance of some other element at 
another time. It is, I believe, the best word that we can use to 
characterize the present stage of industrial progress. The whole 
material equipment of our civilization is capital. Our activities are 
regulated, to a considerable degree determined, by capitalists. The 
share of enjoyment that each of us gets from life comes to him not 
as the immediate product of his own exertions, but as a complex of 
the products and services of other people; and on every path that 
leads from producer to consumer stands the capitalist. It is he, more 
than any other individual, who has made the economic world what 
it is to-day. 

We sometimes refer to the present period as the age of machinery, 
and the term is sufficiently accurate if we seek merely to describe the 
technical processes of production. It is superficial and misleading 
when applied to the vital processes of our economic life. The 
machines that we see all about us have not grown up of themselves. 
They have been invented and constructed to the order of the capi- 
talist. They did not make him; he made them. 

The Germans are right, therefore, when they have fixed on capital- 
ism as the distinctive mark of our present industrial organization, 
and they have done good service to history when they have directed 
attention to the problem of the origins of capitalism. They have 
followed bold methods in their inquiries, and have propounded con- 
clusions of which some have already been disproved. I shall not 
enter on the large questions involved, but must sketch briefly their 
formulation of the problem, to illustrate these methods and at the 
same time to introduce properly the particular question of the 
contribution of the Puritan colonies to the capitalistic movement. 

The problem of the origin of capitalism is in their view twofold. 
It involves, first, a study of the conditions of society at any period. 
Was there in existence a fund of money sufficient to make possible 


1In recent years protests have been made against the loose use of the term “capitalism,’’ which 
indeed has been applied by different authors in very different meanings. Compare articles by Passow 
in Jahrbticher ftir Nationalékonomie, October, 1916, vol. 107, p. 433 ff., by Diehl in Schmoller’s Jahrbuch 
ftir Gesetzgebung, 1920, vol. 44, p. 203 ff. It seems unnecessary to seek here to refine the concept. 


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CAPITALISTIC TENDENCIES IN THE PURITAN COLONIES 227 


its active circulation? Were contracts in terms of money facilitated 
by the effective administration of a rather advanced code of law? 
Was there a considerable group of dependent laborers, the germ of 
the later “proletariat,” forced to seek a livelihood by working for 
others? These questions suggest a group of conditions, some of them 
external and material, all of them more or less objective and uncon- 
scious, which must be satisfied before capitalism in its present form 
could develop. But alone by themselves these conditions do not 
create capitalism. They make it possible, but not necessary. Capi- 
talism as a living institution must wait until the capitalist himself 
appears. 

There is, therefore, another set of conditions, termed subjective, 
which must be satisfied before the idea of capitalism springs up, 
before individuals see the opportunity, cast off the inherited notions 
which would hamper them in exploiting it, and by their success make 
the idea of capitalism current, and found a class of capitalists. Accord- 
ing to this view the capitalist proper is as different from the individual 
human beings of a preceding period as is the capitalistic society from 
the simpler society out of which it «:ew. Let us consider for a 
moment the typical characteristics of the present-day capitalist as 
they are presented in Sombart’s analysis.’ 

First of all, he must have the qualities of the successful entrepreneur, 
of the man who will undertake great things and who can execute them. 
He must be an organizer, able to judge men and to coordinate their 
activities to advance his own ends; he must be a bargainer, with the 
instinct for making money out of every contract; he must be a con- 
queror, with ambitious aims and the persistence that does not accept 
defeat. And he must be something more than all these things. 
Qualities such as those indicated are dangerously egoistic. They 
promise, to an individual or a class, a brilliant career, but threaten a 
short one. They must be balanced by some element which will reduce 
the strain of motives and will stabilize the capitalist’s activities. Such 
an element Sombart finds in what he calls the bourgeois or middle- 
class virtues as they are displayed in the life of the conservative busi- 
ness man, the good citizen, the prudent father of a family. Benjamin 
Franklin is a type of this class; Poor Richard’s Almanac is the bible 
from which its texts are taken. 

The capitalist spirit, it will be noted, is a complex of different and 
contrasting elements. Like other historical phenomena, it must have 
been the product of slow growth. It must have grown up in a hos- 
tile atmosphere. Anything so new and strange as this combination 
would surely be opposed by all the traditions of a society clinging to 
its past. The investigator who seeks the origin of the capitalist spirit 


3 This summary follows Werner Sombart, Der Bourgeois, Leipzig, 1913, which has been translated by 
M. Epstein under the title ‘““‘The Quintessence of Capitalism.’’ Sombart reproduces these views with 
no great change in the revised edition of Der Moderne Kapitalismus, vol. 1 (1916), p. 322 ff., p. 836 ff. 


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228 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


must explain how the elements that composed it were supplied, and 
particularly how they were protected in their development by the 
very society which they were destined eventually to destroy. 

Here we come at last to the Puritan, who has been kept so long 
in the background of this paper. In the religious beliefs and the 
ethical principles of Protestant sects Weber finds one of the essen- 
tial sources of the capitalist spirit. He finds the germs of the capi- 
talist spirit long before capitalism itself developed. In the southern 
colonies of America, in spite of the fact that they were founded by 
men of property for purposes of gain, he finds the capitalist spirit far 
less developed than in Massachusetts, whieh was founded for religious 
reasons by ministers and college graduates, by simple artisans and 
yeomen. The capitalist spirit developed there just because it was 
sheltered by the shield of religion.* 

The Puritan doctrine, according to this view, harmonized the quest 
of profit with the quest of God, and gave an ethical basis to the eco- 
nomic standard of worldly success. It did not condemn riches as 
such, or the pursuit of riches. Riches were, indeed, a danger by 
inviting to repose, but became an evil only when they were enjoyed. 
Spending, the enjoyment of wealth, became-a vice; saving, the 
employment of wealth to get more wealth, became a virtue. Is not 
that, we are asked, the very essence of capitalism ? 

The particular doctrine of the Puritans which Weber most stresses 
as a root of the capitalist spirit is the doctrine of the “calling.” 
This gave an ethical, even a religious, basis to the precept that man 
on earth must not merely work hard; he must work profitably. A few 
extracts from Baxter’s Christian Directory will illustrate the position.‘ 

It is for Action that God maintaineth us and our abilities: work is the moral as well 
as the natural End of power. . . . It is Action that God is most served and honored 
by. . . . If God shew you a way in which you may lawfully get more than in 
another way, (without wrong to your soul or to any other) if you refuse this and 
choose the less gainful way, you cross one of the ends of your Calling, and you refuse 
to be God’s Steward, and to accept his gifts, and use them for him when he requireth 
it: You may labour to be Rich for God, though not for the flesh and sin. 


3 Max Weber, “Die protestantische Ethik and der ‘ Geist’ des Kapitalismus,” Archiv fiir Sozialwissen- 
schaft (1905), vol. 20, pp. 1-54, vol. 21, pp. 1-110. An article by P. T. Forsyth, “Calvinism and capital- 
ism,’”’ Contemporary Review (1910), vol. 97, pp. 728-741, vol. 98, pp. 74-87, was stimulated by Weber 
and reproduces many of his views. 

4 Richard Baxter, A Christian Directory: or a Summ of Practical Theologie and Cases of Conscience. 
Second edition, London, 1678, folio, Tome 1, ch. 10, pt. 1, p. 376 ff., ‘‘ Direction about our Labour and 
Callings.” Another exposition of this view occurs in an anonymous pamphlet, “Truth, a letter to the 
gentlemen of Exchange Alley,’ London, 1733. It is a vice, says the author, to detest and refuse riches, 
I cite in modernized spelling. ‘‘For this is refusing the means and the opportunities of doing good, and 
putting it out of a man’s power to practice many excellent and beneficial virtues. There needs but little 
consideration to convince us, that the using riches as one ought, and gettIng an absolute dominion 
over them is a task much more laborious and difficult than the being content under the want of them; 
and a prudent and virtuous behaviour in poverty is more attainable than a steady goodness in the 
midst of plenty.’”’ The dedicatory epistle of the pamphlet is signed by F.G., F.R.8., but I find no one 
with the initials F.G. listed as a member of the Royal Society at the time. 


CAPITALISTIC TENDENCIES IN THE PURITAN COLONIES 229 


I shall not stop to review the criticisms which Weber’s work has 
called forth from continental scholars. I shall leave aside the ques- 
tions first whether the doctrine of the “calling” of English noncon- 
formers was peculiar to them, and secondly, whether the aspect of it 
which I have sketched was really characteristic of them. I shall con- 
fine myself to a statement of what I have found in the history of the 
Puritan colonies. 

The sources which I have consulted fall, for the most part, into two 
categories—sermons and laws. To the sermons of the time I look 
for an expression of the ethical ideals proclaimed by the spiritual 
leaders of the people for the guidance of their flocks.’ In the laws 
we find a record of the attempts to bring to practical realization such 
ideals as might be imposed in the form of rules by sovereign au- 
thority. 

Let us consider that document absurdly advertised as “the first 
sermon preached in New England ,’’* which certainly was printed in 
England in 1622 and which purports to be a discourse delivered at 
Plymouth in New England in 1621. Whether or not the tradition is 
well founded that ascribes it to Robert Cushman, and fixes the spot 
in Plymouth where he preached in November or December, 1621, the 
document is certainly a good source for the study of Puritanism in 
the Pilgrim colony. To those who seek there the germs of the capi- 
talist spirit the sermon gives cold comfort. It is entitled ‘The Sin 
and Danger of Self-Love.’”’ It is based on a text from the first epistle 
to the Corinthians, “Let no man seek his own: But every man 
another’s wealth.”’ These points are not in themselves decisive, for 
it is of the essence of Weber’s argument that concealed under such 
banners as these the capitalistic spirit was going forth to conquer. 
Let us therefore look further in the sermon, seeking particularly the 
Puritan doctrine of the “calling.’”’ We find, indeed, a reference to it, 
when Paul is quoted as criticizing ‘‘such as were negligent in their 
labors and callings.’’ But the point of Paul’s criticism, as it appeared 
to the preacher, was the effect of negligence in limiting charity, its 
reaction on the consumption of wealth, not on production. The very 
first to be condemned by the preacher among those who “seek their 
own” are “such as are covetous, seek their own by seeking riches, 
wealth, money.”’ The sermon indeed introduces a distinction. ‘Here 
is the difference between a covetous worldling and an honest, thrifty 
Christian; it is lawful sometimes for men to gather wealth, and grow 
rich, even as there was a time for Joseph to store up corn; but a godly 
and sincere Christian will see when this time is, and will not hoard 
up when he seeth others of his brethren and associates to want.” 


6 Of the sermons I should estimate that I have consulted several score, but have kept no exact record. 
Most of them yield nothing for the purpose in view, and I have not attempted to examine even all 


of those in the Yale Library. 
6 Self-Love, by Robert Cushman, 1621, reprinted by Comstock, New York, 1847. 


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That is the gist of the sermon on this crucial issue. A man may law- 
fully gather riches, but nowhere is he exhorted so to do, and the 
general attitude of the preacher toward those who seek wealth is 
openly contemptuous. ‘The greatest scratchers and scrapers and 
gatherers of riches’’ are fools. 

In the later literature of the Puritans in America, I find, indeed, 
some doctrines which lend themselves more readily to the support 
of Weber’s view that qualities destined to further the development of 
a capitalist society were being fostered by religious teaching in the 
Colonies. 

The most complete and systematic treatment of the doctrine of the 
calling which I have found is contained in the “Compleat Body of 
Divinity” of Samuel Willard, pastor of the South Church in Boston 
and vice president of Harvard College.?’ There one finds a detailed 
discussion not only of the “effectual calling,” a theological mystery 
with which we have nothing todo, but also of the “general calling” in 
the service of God, and the “particular calling’? which treats “the 
lawful procuring and furthering of our own and our Neighbour’s Wealth 
or outward estate,”’ the “way to prosperity.”’ I will cite a few pas- 
sages to illustrate his point of view; they are the more significant 
because Willard is seeking to justify in connection with them the prac- 
tice of loans at interest. 

God hath given to Men their Estates for their outward Benefits. . .. There is 
therefore an Honest Gain to be moderately sought in the Improvement of such 
Estates... . It is true, our prosperity depends upon God’s Favour; but we are 
to seek it in the Use of Man’s and that is by Jmprovement; for these are perishable 
things, and will, without such Care and Endeavour go to decay, as common Experi- 
ence will daily teach us. That therefore which I shall only here assert in general 
is, that neerly to advance our Estate by the turning of it, is not in itself a Sin, but 
a Duty to endeavour it; and that there is an Honest way so to do, and this may be 
in a Lawful Calling.® 

The only sermon devoted to this subject, which I have found, is 
contained in Cotton Mather’s “Two brief Discourses. One directing 
a Christian in his General Calling; Another directing him in his Per- 
sonal Calling,’ printed at Boston in 1701. Every Christian has “a 
Personal Calling; or, a certain Particular Employment by which his 
Usefulness in his Neighboriood is distinguished,” and which must 
not be allowed to encroach on the duties of his general calling. Every 
one, even a gentleman, should show a calling; it should be legitimate, 
agreeable, and entered on with a suitable disposition; every Christian 


7A Compleat Body of Divinity in two hundred and fifty expository lectures on the Assembly’s Shorter 
Catechism, by the Reverend & Learned Samuel Willard, Boston, 1726, folio. The lectures are dated, 
and those whichI cite were written, 1704-1705. It is worth noting that I have examined a number 
of Willard’s separate sermons without finding in them anything more on the subject; this and other 
negative evidence make it a fair presumption that the subject was not a ‘‘live” one at the time. 

*P. 699, May 29, 1705. 


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CAPITALISTIC TENDENCIES IN THE PURITAN COLONIES 23] 


should be able to give a good account not only of his particular occu- 
pation but also of what he amounts to in it. He should mind his 
occupation with industry, discretion, honesty, contentment and piety. 

Samuel Willard and Cotton Mather are authorities of the first 
importance by reason of their high position in the world of their time 
and the extent of their influence. Do their doctrines which I have 
briefly sketched, support Weber’s contention that the Puritan moral- 
ists made it not only man’s right but also his duty to acquire wealth ? 
I think that they do. Neither in these authors nor in any others of 
the period have I found such open exhortations to get rich as appear 
in Baxter and other English sources. The preachers stress, rather, 
the other side of the subject, tliat it is improper to grow poor. They 
condemn the vices that lead to that result, and urge the correspond- 
ing virtues that lead to prosperity and riches, without attending very 
much to the results on a man’s personal fortunes. The parable of 
the talents is often on their lips. ‘‘Let your Business Engross the 
Most of your Time,” wrote Cotton Mather. “Avoid all impertinent 
Avocations. Laudable Recreations may be used now and then: But, 
I beseech you, Let those Recreations be used for Sawce but not for 
Meat.”’® ‘“Tdleness is a sinful waste of our Time,” wrote Timothy 
Dwight’? at the close of the colonial period. ‘‘ Prodigality is another 
Fraud, of the same general nature.’”’ By both of these vices property 
is effectually wasted.” 

Certain qualifications are to be noted, affecting the importance 
which we may ascribe to these doctrines as the germs of a later cap- 
italism. In the first place these teachings take a subordinate place 
in the sermons of the period. Industry and thrift, to be sure, are 
frequently referred to as commonplace virtues, the propriety of 
which my be taken for granted; and the German scholar might 
urge that this fact proves his contention, and that Puritanism had 
established its standards. It appears to me, rather, that the preacher 
had found that self-interest was sufficient stimulant to urge men to 
economic exertion; and he sought to direct men’s minds to things 
above them rather than to things around them. Whatever be the 
explanation, the doctrine of the calling, in the particular not the 
general sense, receives at best no more than a bare reference in 
sermons which I have seen, aside from that of Cotton Mather, and is 
not treated at all in Dwight’s Theology. One seeks it in vain in 
sermons whose titles seem to promise some economic philosophy, such 
as Cotton Mather’s “The Serviceable Man,” 1690; Solomon Stod- 
dard’s “God’s Frown in the Death of Usefull Men,” 1703; Samuel 
Whitman’s “ Practical Godliness the Way to Prosperity,” 1714. 


§Two Discourses, p. 49. 
Theology; explained and defended in a series of sermons. Middletown, 1818, vol. 4, p. 229, p 282. 


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Another point to be noticed is the conflict between the encourage- 
ment of the accumulation of riches, as expressed in extracts quoted 
above, and the social philosophy of the Puritans. The class distinc- 
tions which they brought with them from England tended to grow 
weaker, but did not disappear, and were in fact supported by the 
influence of the ministers. They discourage any seeking after social 
advancement, and preached contentment in the station in which a 
man found himself. So Timothy Cutler, in his election sermon at 
Hartford, 1717, on ‘‘The Firm Union of a People,’ urged the need 
of “compactness,” that every man should keep within the limits of 
his sphere and station; and Benjamin Colman, preaching the election 
sermon at Boston the next year, required that ‘Every one is to act 
in his own place, studying to be quiet and to do his own business, in 
the Relation Trust and Office which the governing Providence of 
God assigns him.” 

Finally, we must inquire into the relation of some of the moral 
doctrines which we have been considering to the practical policy 
adopted by the community in the form of laws, and the relation of 
both doctrine and policy to the material conditions of life. May it 
not be that some of the precepts which I have quoted were incul- 
cated not so much because the people were Puritans as because they 
were colonists? This I believe to have been the case. 

In one sense the colonists were without question capitalistically 
inclined—in the sense, namely, that their stock of capital was des- 
perately small, and that they must strive in every way to further its 
maintenance and its increase. When we study, however, the ways 
that they chose to further these ends, we find a curious contrast; 
these ways were distinctly socialistic. I have not in mind here the 
ill-fated communistic experiment in early Plymouth. There was no 
attempt later to depart so far from individualism. Samuel Willard, 
at the end of the seventeenth century, was able to justify private 
property by reference to all law, both human and divine. Private 
property was recognized, but its social bearings were emphasized as 
they have never been in our later life. Capital was wanted, not for 
the individual who might possess it, but for the group who might 
benefit by its employment; and the use of capital was closely 
restricted to serve social ends. 

The Pilgrim’s compact of 1620, or John Winthrop’s Modell of Chris- 
tian Charity of 1630, show a consciousness of the superiority of the 
interests of the group above the interests of any individual which was 
realized so far as practicable in later economic legislation. Acts fix- 
ing the wages which artizans might demand were common in the 
early history of the Puritan colonies, and though they show a few 
traces of class interests, appear to have been in general an honest 
attempt to regulate the economic relations of individuals for the ben- 


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CAPITALISTIC TENDENCIES IN THE PURITAN COLONIES 233 


efit of the whole society. When the failure of these general acts, 
whether administered by the colonial or by a local body, was realized, 
the government confined its activities to the punishment of indi- 
vidual cases of extortion, and to the regulation of specific trades. 
Attempts to fix the price of bread were made and abandoned, but 
regulation of bakers’ charges, expressed in an assize of bread, was wide- 
spread and was carried out in practice. The Selectmen’s Records 
and the Town Records of Boston show that the assize of bread was 
enforced in that town through the later seventeenth and the eight- 
eenth centuries." 

Attempts to fix by law priees in exchanges were also common in 
the early period. They were likewise soon abandoned, but the motive 
behind them expressed itself in a great variety of legislation designed 
to protect the interests of the group from the selfishness of individuals. 
The establishment of markets was a device to bring together buyers 
and sellers in such numbers that a fair market price might be fixed 
and that the individual might thereby. be protected from the 
oppression to which his ignorance or weakness might otherwise 
expose him. 

In most cases the market appears to have resulted in nothing more 
than this regular concourse of people seeking to trade with each other, 
but in some cases it became an elaborate institution, with regular 
officials to enforce the medieval rules against forestalling, engrossing, 
and regrating. This was notably the case in Boston, where the ques- 
tion of market regulations became in the eighteenth century a polit- 
ical issue, and led to open riot.” Timothy Dwight, writing of the 
period shortly after 1800, thought that the greatest evil from which 
the inhabitants of New Haven suffered was the want of a regular 
market system." 

For a supply of the necessary provisions the people relied as a rule 
on individual traders attracted to the market. The colony, and 
sometimes the town, imposed restrictions on the export of wares 
which might be wanted by the consumers of the community; and 
often imposed an embargo on the shipment of provisions, to protect 
the consumer from the selfish interest of the producer seeking his 
best market. Measures of this kind were not always sufficient to 
satisfy the demand for protection. Cotton had proposed in 1641 
that each town should have its own public grain store," and this 


11 The assize of bread was established in Massacusetts by an act of 1646, and was put under control of 
the towns in 1681, Records of Massachusetts Bay, 2:181, 5:322. Boston administered the assize more 
or less strictly from 1682 to 1801. There are scattered references to the assize in other New England towns, 
but it does not seem to have been administered systematically in any of them. 

12 Boston is in this regard again peculiar in the determination which it showed in attempting to carry 
into effect the market rules of the me ieval town; the question ofthe market runs through many volumes 
of the town’s records. 

13 Travels in New England, I: 194. 

14 Hutchinson Papers, Albany, 1865, I: 189, 


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form of “town trading,’ to use the modern phrase, was practiced on 
an elaborate scale in Boston in the eighteenth century. A bread riot 
in that town in 1713 appears to have been the occasion of the system 
by which the town government purchased grain from public funds 
and distributed it at a price set to check exorbitant demands on the 
part of private sellers. The town records show that this system was 
in regular operation in the town down to the Revolution." 

The clearest example of the strong tendency to socialize private 
capital appears in the public position given the gristmill. In the 
earliest. period the Indian corn which formed the staple food was 
pounded in a samp mortar, or ground in a hand mill, ‘‘quarn,”’ by a 
laborious process. Bradford says that the Pilgrims pounded their 
corn for many years. So great, however, were the hardships of this 
process that the colonists made every effort to obtain a power mill 
driven by water or by wind. The town sometimes established the 
mill as a public undertaking, sometimes enlisted private enterprise by 
offering assistance or by promising a limited monopoly. The mill en- 
joyed, in any event, a practical monopoly. The miller of a town had 
the people at his merey. He could charge what rates he pleased. 
We find early established, therefore, the doctrine that the mill, even 
though it were a purely private undertaking, could operate only under 
conditions laid down by law for the protection of customers. To use 
the later language of the law, it was “private property affected to a 
public use,’’ and, like the grain elevators or the railroads of recent 
times, it was socialized, and it must grind well and duly for specified 
rates of toll. The struggles of the town with its gristmill present in 
miniature all the troubles that the Nation was later to undergo in 
dealing with the railroads—the failure of competition, the inadequacy 
of regulation, recourse in some cases to municipal ownership as the 
avenue of escape." 


% A committee appointed in 1774 to inquire into the operation of the granary recommended that it be 
closed, Town Records, Reports, vol. 18, pp. 156,170. The building was let to a private person in 1786, 
Selectmen’s Records, Reports, vol. 25, p. 324. 

1% The problem of just price, the rate at which a man may properly exchange his goods or services, is 
not infrequently raised in the doctrinal literature of the colonial period, but the writers are evidently de- 
pendent on the canonist doctrines which tradition had bequeathed to them, and make no original con- 
tribution on this puzzling question. Even while they recognized the practical difficuities in the way oi 
establishing the just price in a concrete case they believed that at least some prices could be shown to 
be unjust; and the courts punished individual cases of extortion. 

With regard to the loan at interest, the Puritans reflected the view then prevailing in England, that 
interest was legitimate, but that it should not be excessive, and that Christian charity required that it 
be altogether remitted in case of need. Cotton proposed in 1641 a positive law forbidding in‘erest on a 
Joan to a poor brother, but the statutes actually adopted merely set a limit to the rate. The Massachu- 
setts act of 1693 expressly excepted transactions in bottomrv and foreign exchange, in which the competi- 
tion of business men might be expected to establish a fair rate. On the whole, however, the colonial 
usury laws seem to have been designed to lower the rate of interest, to the advantage of the borrower. 
The colonial community felt a sore need of capital to develop the new country, and passed laws which 
by discoureging the capitalist may have actually defeated the end in view. Evasion was, however, so 
easy that the matter is of theoretical rather than of practical importance. 


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CAPITALISTIC TENDENCIES IN THE PURITAN COLONIES 235 


The conclusions of this study in the capitalistic tendencies of the 
Puritan colonies may be summarized as follows: Puritan religious 
doctrines did lend themselves, by their insistence on industry and 
thrif', to the process of saving, which is essential to the accumulation 
of capital. The spiritual leaders of the people appear, however, to 
have aid but little emphasis on the doctrine of the “calling,” and 
to have allowed it to drop far into the background of their inter- 
ests. The strength of their appeal for saving was derived not from 
ethical or religious doctrines, but from the practical needs of a society 
in a colonial environment. Capital was wanted for social ends; its 
accumulation was rigidly governed by precepts and by laws opposing 
its employment to further selfish interests. The spirit of the Puritan 
colonies was, on the whole, rather socialistic than capitalistic. 


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XII. THE HERITAGE OF THE PURITANS 


By DAVID SAVILLE MUZZEY 
Columbia University 


237 


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THE HERITAGE OF THE PURITANS 
By Davip SAvitLE Muzzey 


Anniversaries are dangerous. They often tempt to the pious exag- 
geration of panegyric. As the lamp beneath the retort liberates from 
certain chemical substances a roseate cloud of vapor, so the flame of 
patriotism or filial pride warms the heart of orator or poet until it 
expands and overflows in language that can hardly bear the acid test 
of historical criticism. Daniel Webster, at Plymouth Rock 100 years 
ago, praised the spot as that “where Christianity, civilization, and 
letters made their first lodgment in a vast extent of country”; and 
23 years later, at adinner of the New England Society at the old Astor 
House in New York, he spoke of ‘“‘ the free nature of our institutions 
and the popular form of those governments which have come down to 
us from the Rock of Plymouth.’’ Yet Daniel Webster knew that 
more than a decade before the Pilgrims landed Christianity and 
civilization had made a permanent lodgment on the banks of the 
James, and that more than a year before the Mayflower sighted the 
shores of Cape Cod 22 burgesses from the plantations and hundreds 
of the Virginia colony had met in the rude church at Jamestown as 
the first representative body on American soil, the prototype and 
promise of our “free institutions and popular forms of government.”’ 
In his Robinson of Leyden, Oliver Wendell Holmes sang of the Pilgrim 


Fathers: 


And these were they who gave us birth, 
The Pilgrims of the sunset wave, 

Who won for us this virgin earth, 
And freedom with the land they gave. 


The meter and the rhyme are faultless, but the lines will not bear 
the scrutiny of the historian. The Pilgrims did not give us birth, 
unless by ‘“‘us’’ Doctor Holmes means ‘“‘us descendants of the Pil- 
grims.” And as for winning for us this virgin earth, what of the 
long procession of explorers, missionaries, traders, pioneers who file 
in a great pageant before our eyes with their faces toward the sunset! 
Did the French ‘‘coureurs”’ pass through Plymorth, or the Germans 

239 


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240 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


of the Schuylkill and the Juniata, or the Scotch-Irish of the Shen- 
andoah, or the Huguenots of Carolina? Did the men of the western 
waters carry faces bronzed by the sun and salt of Cape Cod Bay, or 
were Radisson, La Salle, Daniel Boone, and George Rogers Clark 
sons of the Pilgrims? Yet it has been too common to indulge in 
such poetical or rhetorical extravagances from the seventeenth 
century, when Nathaniel Morton in his New England Memorial saw 
in the Puritans the vine of Psalm Ixxx which God had planted in 
the wilderness and caused to take deep root and fill the land, to the 
twentieth century, when Theodore Roosevelt at the laying of the 
corner stone of the Provincetown Monument said: “The coming 
hither of the Pilgrims three centures ago shaped the destinies of 
this continent.” 

In attempting to estimate our heritage from the Puritans I would 
not prejudice my case by assuming that they were the sole testators 
of our country’s blessings; nor would I, like Palfrey and other pious 
New England historians (whatever secret satisfaction I may take in 
my New England birth and blood), maintain that all that the Puritans 
bequeathed was good. Their shortcomings have received ample 
attention. From the coarse ridicule of Butler’s Hudibras to Mac- 
aulay’s stately persiflage in the essay on Milton; from Maverick’s 
courteous declaration of grievances and Roger Williams’s stubborn 
eristics to the delicious satire of the Deaeon’s One Hoss Shay, all the 
changes have been rung on the Puritan’s defects—his intolerance, his 
sourness, his hypocrisy, his inhumanity, his conceit, his censorious- 
ness, and so on through the appalling list, down to his ridiculous aver- 
sion to mince pies and beer at the Christmas season. And, indeed, 
there is something uncongenial, to say the least, in the atmosphere of 
the seventeenth century Puritan. Take Judge Samuel Sewall, for 
instance, as we see him in his diary—now spending his Christmas in 
the “awful but pleasing diverson” of arranging the coffins in the 
family vault, now endeavoring to terrify his young son into a prema- 
ture experience of grace by strong representations of hell-fire, now 
pressing the courtship for his third marriage with a slyly amorous 
pomposity. You and I to-day would not feel any live spirit of 
“camaraderie” with a seventeenth-century Puritan, for it is a difficult 
thing to establish a common ground of friendly intercourse with a man 
who thinks that you are wallowing in original sin. But after all, 
much of the impatient disgust with the Puritans (like that which 
found expression in the remark attributed sometimes to an Anglican 
bishop and sometimes to an Oxford don, namely, that he wished that 
Plymouth Rock had landed on the Pilgrims), is due to our applying 
twentieth-century tastes and standards to seventeenth-century men. 
I imagine that it would be uncongenial also for most of us to associate 


with a courtier of King James. 


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THE HERITAGE OF THE PURITANS 241 


Indeed, the application of that elementary but oft-neglected canon 
of historical criticism, namely, contemporaneity, while by no means 
freeing the Puritan from all of his unloveliness, would go far toward 
a proper appreciation of the motives from which he acted. If we 
saw the difficulties and perils of his situation with the same prompt- 
ness with which we detect the eccentricities of his character, there 
would be little danger of our sharing Chesterton’s opinion of Puritan 
New England as “‘a madhouse where religious maniacs had broken loose 
and locked up their keepers.’’ Take, for example, the attitude of the 
Puritan toward the Church of England. To-day, in New England or 
in any other part of our country, political disqualification or reli- 
gious persecution of Episcopalians would be bigotry pure and simple. 
Not so in the troubled decade of the 1630’s, when, in John Cotton’s 
virile phrase, “‘God rocked the three kingdoms” of Britain. The New 
England Puritans had left their homeland and come to the wilderness 
not so much to enjoy freedom of worship, as is so frequently stated 
(‘“‘enjoy”’ being aratherstrange word in their vocabulary), as to estab- 
lish that form of church and magistracy which they believed God laid 
upon their conscience. They were beset with foes on both sides of 
the Atlantic, whose purpose was not to secure the admission of the 
peaceful celebration of the Anglican rites alongside of the sterner 
Puritan worship, but to destroy the Puritan colony root and branch. 
Charles I ordered the surrender of the Massachusetts charter in 1634, 
five years after he had granted it. Sir Ferdinando Gorges, the serv- 
ant of King Charles, spent his life in the attempt to wreck New 
England Puritanism. To admit Episcopalians into Massachusetts 
would not have been simply to tolerate the prayer book and the vest- 
ments, but to welcome the political supporters of Charles and Straf- 
ford; to make their servants, Mason and Gorges, feel at home; to 
receive the emissaries of Archbishop Laud, for whom, in Gardiner’s 
classic phrase, the church was not the temple of the Holy Ghost but 
the palace of an invisible king. To the Puritan the Anglican Church 
was the palace of a very visible and pestilential king. If Charles and 
Laud and Gorges had succeeded, there would have been no Puritan 
New England. You may believe that it would have been better for 
America if there had been no Puritan New England. ‘De Gustibus 
non est disputandum.” But it is hardly possible to rejoice in the pres- 
ervation of Puritan New England and at the same time to blame the 


Puritans for their self-preservation. 


Intolerant!—They bought 
Their freedom with a price too nobly great 
To lose it lightly. Always in their thought 
A future peril to their children loomed 
With entrance of false doctrine] 


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942 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


It is a “reductio ad absurdum”’ of the principle of tolerance—as 
we have had reason to ponder on somewhat deeply in the last few 
years—to expect any society to admit to its bosom propaganda whose 
avowed object is its destruction. 

You will have noticed that in turning my first page I dropped 
the Pilgrims and began to speak of the Puritans. And you may have 
thought on reading the title in the program, ‘The heritage of the 
Puritans,” that this paper, if read at all, should be postponed to the 
annual meeting of the association in 1930—when I shall be old and 
eray. We are well aware, of course, of the distinctions between the 
Pilgrims and the Puritans—distinctions emphasized in every class- 
room. Aside from the different circumstances of the migration, there 
are some notable contrasts (explained to some extent, I believe, by 
the historical condition to which I have just alluded) in the temper 
of the settlements. The smaller colony to the south, as we follow its 
history in the pages of Bradford, did not develop that rigidity which 
we find among the Massachusetts Puritans. The harshness of the 
“lord bretheren,”’ as Blackstone calls them, with humorous reference 
to the “lord bishops,” is lacking. Also those unlovely habits of 
“gathering providences”’ in the shape of God’s retributions and judg- 
ments. ‘This day,’ writes Increase Mather in his diary on Novem- 
ber 17, 1675, “I hear God shot an arrow into the midst of this town. 
The small pocks is in the ordinary of the sign of the Swan. The 
Keeper is a drunkard . . . His daughter is attacked to show God’s 
displeasure.”” When some ships were wrecked on the way from 
Massachusetts to Connecticut, the clergy of Boston said that it was 
“a correction from God.’’ But Bradford, commenting on the acci- 
dent, added: “I dare not be so bould with God’s judgments in this 
kind.’”’ This sounds more like John Greenleaf Whittier than like 
John Endicott. When we compare Bradford’s portraiture of the 
sweet reasonableness of Elder William Brewster with the temper of 
any of the leaders of the northern colony, we realize that there were 
real contrasts between the two settlements. 

Nevertheless, from the broader historical point of view of the influ- 
ence of New England Puritanism the differences between the two col- 
onies sink into comparative insignificance. Both came to these 
shores driven by the same “rude impulse.”” Three thousand miles 
of water between them and the motherland made them both ‘‘sepa- 
ratists.”” There was no more thought of establishing even a “ puri- 
fied’”’ Anglicanism among the Boston Pilgrims than there was among 
the Plymouth Pilgrims. Moreover, both in origin and history the 
two colonies were closely connected. At least half a dozen members 
of the Massachusetts Bay Company had been prominent among the 
adventurers in the Plymouth undertaking. Bradford’s History shows 
on many pages a spirit of cooperation and mutual consideration 


THE HERITAGE OF THE PURITANS 243 


between the two settlements in such matters as trade, Indian policy, 
and the maintenance of independency in the churches. In fact, 
the union of the two colonies by the royal charter of 1691 was rather 
the acknowledgment of an accomplished fact than the enforcement 
of an unwelcome policy. It was not resisted by Plymouth, as the 
merger with Connecticut had been resisted by New Haven 27 years 
before. 

The mention of the new charter of 1691 suggests a point too 
seldom given its weight in our estimate of the contribution of the 
Puritans, namely, that a great change had come over the face of 
Puritan New England toward the close of the seventeenth century. 
Prof. Frederick J. Turner in an address before the American Anti- 
quarian Society at Worcester in October 1919, quoted the amusing 
insolence of the Mayor of Boston to a member of the Harvard corpo- 
ration in a.conversation held in 1916, when his honor declared that 
“the Irish had letters and learning, culture and civilization, when 
the forebears of New England were the savage denizens of the 
Hyperborean forests; that the Irish had made Massachusetts a 
fit place to live in, and that the New England of the Puritan fathers 
was as dead as Julius Cesar.’”’ This is not the charige that had 
come over New England by the end of the seventeenth century, 
but a later transformation. However, if the culture of the Irish 
had not supplanted the savagery of the descendants of the Hyper- 
borean forests, and if the New Eneland of the Puritans was not 
as dead as Julius Cesar in 1700, the actual Puritans of the first 
generation were as dead as Julius Cesar. A new generation had 
grown up in America—a generation that knew of bishops’ visitations 
and gunpowder plots and millenary petitions and the king’s dragoons 
only by hearsay. ‘The children’s teeth were not set on edge by the 
sour grapes their fathers had eaten. 

So long as there was any danger that the Stuarts might succeed 
in destroying their chartered liberties or overthrowing their indepen- 
dent churches, the Puritans naturally maintained their wary and 
jealous orthodoxy. The accession of William of Orange brought the 
sense of security that was a prerequisite for a saner political devel- 
opment. And the charter which was issued two years later marks, 
as well as any single event can mark the beginning of an epoch, the 
change from an essentially religious to an essentially political New 
England. Three provisions of the charter put an end to the rule of 
the saints: (1) Religious toleration was extended to all Christians 
except Roman Catholics; (2) the suffrage was relieved of all restric- 
tions except a small property qualification; and (3) the governor and 
a great number of officials became royal appointees. [Further evi- 
dence of the change in the Puritan character at the close of the 


244 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


seventeenth century can be seen in the cessation of the witchcraft 
obsession in 1692 and the expulsion of the Mathers from the control 
of Harvard College in 1701. Finally, a silent, steady influence had 
been flowing back upon the old Puritanism from the “outskirts” of 
its civilization in the frontier settlements, the “mark colonies,” the 
towns of the Connecticut Valley and New Hampshire, for the inter- 
esting details of which I must refer you to Professor Turner’s paper 
in the Proceedings of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts for April, 
1914. Puritanism here was incidental to the problems of military 
defense and economic subsistence. The tendency was more toward 
the Plymouth type of society. The traditional control of the clergy 
gave way to the influence of those traits which have ever character- 
ized our western pioneers (for the emigrants to the Connecticut Val- 
ley were as truly pioneers as the men who crossed the Alleghanies 
and the Rockies): Namely, individual initiative, resourcefulness, 
impatience of distant authorities, pragmatic tests of character, secu- 
larism, confidence, hard grips with real things. There was little room 
for the subtleties of theological debate. The trial and condemnation 
of Mistress Anne Hutchinson at Cambridge (which seems as remote 
to us as the trial and condemnation of Nestorius at Ephesus) could 
hardly have been enacted in the Connectieut Valley. 

We can read very plainly in the works of Cotton Mather how the 
secularism of the frontier villages, ‘“‘on the wrong side of the hedge” 
as he characterized them, pained the last champion of the old ortho- 
doxy. In his “Frontiers Well Defended” of 1707, Mather goes a 
“‘vathering providences’”’ to show God’s punishment of secularism. 
Remember that it was but three years after Hertel de Rouville’s 
band of Indians had swooped down upon Deerfield, massacring 49 
men, women, and children, and carrying 111 into captivity. ‘The 
unchurched villages,’ says Mather, ‘‘have been utterly broken up 
by the war, while those with churches regularly formed were under 
the mere sensible protection of Heaven.” Needless to say, Mather’s 
report is somewhat marred by “tendency.” It is hard to see what 
‘sensible protection’? Heaven gave to the Rev. John Williams of 
Deerfield whose flock was massacred and himself taken captive by 
the Indians. Nevertheless, Mather’s anxiety was well founded. 
“By the end of the colonial period,” says Professor Turner (and the 
same might be said with almost equal truth of the end of the seven- 
teenth century), ‘‘ there were two New Englands, the one coastal and 
dominated by the commercial interests and the established Congre- 
gational churches, the other a primitive agricultural area, democratic 
in principle and not afraid of innovation.” In the seventeenth cen- 
tury John Hampden “sought the Lord” on ship money; in the eight- 
eenth, James Otis sought the law on writs of assistance. - 


THE HERITAGE OF THE PURITANS 245 


It.is a distortion of perspective in estimating the heritage of the 
Puritans—whether we consider the actual expansion of New England 
into central New York and the old Northwest, or the influence of 
New England on our political and social institutions—to confine our 
view, as so many have been tempted to do by the picturesque mani- 
festations of the so-called New England conscience, to the theolog- 
ical and moral aspects of the Puritan régime. The reign of the saints 
lasted a scant two generations; the influence of socio-political New 
England has extended over two centuries. It is to two or three of 
these latter influences that I wish to call your attention in what 
remains of this paper. 

First, and most important, as I think, is the political philosophy 
of Puritanism. In an age when, acccording to Mr. Wells, the mon- 
archs were exploiting the principles of Machiavelli for the establish- 
ment of the ‘great powers” as transcendant, super-legal states, the 
Puritan insisted on the primacy of natural, or God-given, rights and 
the origin of government in a covenant by the people. This, of course, 
begins in a religious compact after Calvin’s txaching, the Bible itself 
being a convenant (diathéké, awkwardly  -nslated by the Latin 
“‘testamentum’’) between God and his peopk.. Note the language of 
the Mayflower Compact: ‘Wee . . . doby these presents solemnly 
and mutualy in the presence of God and of one another, covenant 
and combine ourselves together into a civil body politick for our 
better ordering and preservation” ; or more fully in the famous 
Exeter Covenant of 1639: “Wee .. . bretheren of the Church of 
Exeter, situate and lying upon the river Piscataqua . . . considering 
with ourselves the holy will of God and our own necessity that we 
should not live without wholesome laws and government amongst 
us . . . do in the name of Christ and in the sight of God, combine 
ourselves together to enact and set up amongst us such government 
as shall be to our best discovering agreeable to the will of God, 
professing ourselves subject to our sovereign Lord King Charles, 
according to the liberties of our English colony of Massachusetts. ”’ 
In cauda venenum! 

That a handful of men could set up a state “agreeable to the will 
of God” was a direct corollary to the doctrine that two or three 
could make a church under the divine diathéké. And both claims 
were abhorrent and blasphemous in the eyes of the established 
powers. If you would realize the vast influence on our history of 
the remark of John Cotton: ‘‘It is evident by the light of nature 
that all civil relations are founded in covenant,” think ahead to the 
American Revolution, based on the doctrines that governments are 
made by man and made for man’s needs, that the individual is prior 
to the government and has rights beyond the power of government 


246 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


to curtail, that all government is restrained by a superior authority, 
a fundamental law. If you say: “But this is Thomas Jefferson!”’ 
I do not deny it. I disclaimed at the beginning of my paper any 
disposition to attribute to the Puritan a monopoly of political virtue. 
I would only suggest that Jefferson was a rebel and a radical in 
Virginia, who broke with the Blairs and the Pendletons and the 
other “cyphers of aristocracy’’ as he called them, and went back to 
the men of Puritan tradition in England, to Milton and Sidney and 
Locke, for his inspiration. The political philosophy which he had to 
fight for in Virginia was normal in New England. You would not 
find any irate, apoplectic Peyton Randolph rushing out into the 
lobby of the Massachusetts General Court, shouting that he would 
have given a hundred guineas for the single vote necessary to defeat 
the resolutions condemning the Stamp Act. When Charles II, just 
a century earlier, was commending the Virginians as “the best of his 
distant children” and quartering the arms of the Old Dominion, his 
commissioners to Massachusetts were flouted as intruders, and 
his great minister, Clarendon, wrote that the New [England colonies 
were already “hardening into republics.” In other colonies there 
were protests against this or that governor or act or policy, but the 
very existence of the Puritan governments was a standing protest 
and a chronic rebellion against hetero-determination. If some 
modern historians fail to grasp the full significance of this contrast, 
at least it was distressingly clear to the British Government of the 
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 

The source and inspiration of the Puritan’s stark philosophy of 
political self-determination was, as we have seen, the religious doc- 
trine of government by covenant, with its insistence on individual 
competency (through the illumination of God’s will as revealed in 
the Scriptures) and collective responsibility. The particular agency 
by which this philosophy was realized in society was the town. The 
New England town as a kind of cell in our body politic, as a social, 
religious, and educational unit, is the second contribution of the 
Puritan to our American democracy that I would emphasize. Of 
the compact structure of the New England towns, their completeness 
and self-sufficiency of function, their propagation through a system 
by which the land of the colony, instead of being sold for revenue 
or alloted to settlers by ‘‘head-rights”’, was given to groups of men 
who were responsible for the maintenance of Puritan institutions and 
the preservation of Puritan ideals, I have not time to speak. You 
remember the recipe for making a New England town which John 
Adams gave to Major Langbourne of Virginia: Town meetings, train- 
ing days, schools, and ministers. At the time of the Stuart Restora- 
tion Samuel Butler ridiculed the pretensions of these towns to religious 
autonomy. New England was: 


THE HERITAGE OF THE PURITANS 247 


A commonwealth of Popery, 

Where every village is a see 

As well as Rome, and must maintain 
Its tithe-pig metropolitan. 

And every hamlet’s governéd 

By’s Holiness the Church’s head, 
More haughty and severe in’s place 
Than Gregory and Boniface. 

Their holinesses the Cottons, Wilsons, Mathers, and Shepards had 
ceased to play the Gregory and Boniface before the generation of 
Hudibras had passed; but the towns remained keenly conscious of 
their individual and several responsibility for the preservation of lib- 
erty. For example, John Adams’s own town of Braintree, Mass., 
passed resolutions, September 24, 1765, on the occasion of the Stamp 
Act, to the effect that ‘We have clear knowledge and a just sense of 
our rights and liberties, and with submission to Divine Providence 
we never can be slaves.”’ ‘The protest of a score or two citizens of 
Braintree was as stately, formal, and considerable in their eyes as the 
remonstrance of a Continental Congress. A few Sundays later Parson 
Wibird, as yet somewhat untried, announced as his text: ‘‘Hear O 
heavens, and give ear O earth! I have nourished and brought up 
children and they have rebelled against me.’”’’ John Adams, on his 
front seat, was immediately alert. ‘‘I began to suspect a Tory ser- 
mon on the times,” he writes in his diary, adding with relief, “ but 
the preacher confined himself to spirituals.” Here is the ‘‘eternal 
vigilance’? which Daniel Webster called “the price of liberty.”’ 
When the towns of Massachusetts joined forces, they made the tough- 
est web of resistance that ever authority tried to pierce. Thomas 
Hutchinson said of the Circular Letter of 1768 that it “had a greater 
tendency toward a revolution in the Government than any preceding 
measure in any of the Colonies.’”” And Thomas Jefferson’s experience 
in trying to enforce the embargo is well known. “TI felt the ground 
shaken under my feet,’’ he says, ‘by the actions of the New England 
town meetings.”’ 

It would take us far beyond the limits of our time to describe even 
in the most cursory manner the influence of the town polity upon the 
development of our democracy. I would only refer you to the legis- 
lation of the Virginia burgesses in 1701, which substituted for the 
“quasi manorial grants” of the Beverlys, Smiths, and Byrds, as the 
best way of protecting the frontiers, “settlements like the New 
England towns;” to the eventual replacement in the Ohio Valley of 
the large tracts of land sold to speculative companies by a democracy 
of small landholders; to the general coincidence of the census settlers 
of New England ancestry with the preponderance of the free-soil vote 
in the West and Northwest; to the solicitude of the Ne» England 


948 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


missionaries in the extension of our settlements into Wisconsin, lest 
the supply of the means of grace might prove “‘inadequate to the 
dispersion into remote and still remoter corners of the land.”’ Event- 
ually all the practices of the Puritans, even the most unlovely and 
inquisitorial, were directed to the noble end of rearing a society of 
utterly responsible individuals—-the only society on which an endur- 
ing democracy can rest. For your military power is nothing, your 
wealth is nothing, your numbers are nothing without the seed from 
which all greatness come—free and enlightened citizens. Local self- 
government is the germ cell of democracy. It is of no avail to count 
our millions if the individuals are ignorant, weak, and venal. Zero 
multiplied by any conceivable magnitude still results in zero. The 
so-called democratic empire, like that of Louis Napoleon, is one of the 
most despicable and dangerous forms of government. There is rhe- 
torical exaggeration, but yet a kernel of profound truth, in the words 
of Jared Sparks written in 1836: ‘‘We owe it to the Puritans that we 
are not tossed like a shuttlecock from the pikes of an enraged popu- 
lace to the bayonets of a military police.”’ 

So, in the end, our most valuable heritage from the Puritan (and 
it would be a sort of impiety to conclude my paper without acknowledg- 
ment of it) is the emphasis they put upon unremitting education for 
responsibility. That the education was sought primarily in Holy 
Scripture by the earlier generation, and that the responsibility was 
conceived of as a peculiar relation to God, resulted in dogmatism, 
bigotry, and exclusiveness. But all that, after all, was incidental. 
More than anything else, intellectual activity works the purgation of 
its own errors. It is only when thought stops that dogma is fixed. 
The Puritan educated the individual in order that he might be fit to 
meet his God in whatever great appointment his God might have for 
him. For, as Cotton said, ‘‘God might enlarge private men with pub- 
lic gift and dispense them to edification.’”” But the mind will not be 
held in religious or scientific graveclothes when once it has begun to 
inquire and grow. The Puritans of the seventeenth century would 
have been scandalized by Emerson and Lowell as the purveyors of 
“unsound, unsavory, and giddie fancies,’’ like Mistress Anne 
Hutchinson; yet Emerson and Lowell were their legitimate chil- 
dren. The famous Massachusetts education law of 1647 was passed 
to circumvent Satan in “‘one of his chief projects, to keep men from 
the knowledge of the Scriptures.’””’ The preamble to the Massachu- 
setts constitution of 1780 begins: ‘‘ Wisdom and knowledge, as well 
as virtue, diffused generally among the body of the people being neces- 
sary for the perpetuation of their rights and liberties,” etc. To such 
sane and secular wisdom had the circumvention of Satan led in a 


century and a half! 


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THE HERITAGE OF THE PURITANS 249 


I confess that I, for one, am neither sorry to see our attention called 
back to the Puritans at this time, nor inclined to use the occasion for 
smart ridicule of the Puritans’ peculiar failings. An age which makes 
a religion of business will naturally look with little sympathy on an 
age which made a business of religion. And a philosophy that is 
impatient of absolutisms may need reminding that a thoroughgoing 
pragmatism would rank a miscarriage of burglary with a misconception 
of truth. One fault, at least, the Puritan was free from—the fashion- 
able fault of sickness with existence. 


The world for [him] held purport: life [he] wore 
Proudly as kings their solemn robes of state. 


XI. PHILADELPHIA AND THE EMBARGO: 1808 


By LOUIS MARTIN SEARS 
Purdue University 


251 


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PHILADELPHIA AND THE EMBARGO: 1808 
By Louris Martin SEARS 


The year of the embargo was critical in the economic history of 
the United States. During the Great War in Europe, especially in 
the first phase from 1792 to the Peace of Amiens a decade later, 
America as the ehief of neutrals had built up a carrying trade of vast 
proportions. The million’ or more tons of shipping engaged in this 
trade constituted an important interest for the nation, and one 
which in predominantly commercial districts like Massachusetts was 
paramount. 

Among the mercantile community, accordingly, the action of our 
Government in replying to the Berlin and Milan Decrees and the Or- 
ders in Council of 1806 and 1807, which greatly hampered commerce, 
by an embargo which prohibited it wholly, was viewed with conster- 
nation. And in proportion as mercantile interests determined the 
opinion of the people, the embargo was execrated as the knell of 
American prosperity. Asa result, something of a tradition has grown 
up in American history as to the hard times produced by that “ill 
judged”’ measure. 

If the embargo offered small comfort to commerce, it gave a wholly 
new impetus to manufactures. And herein lies the explanation of 
a sudden prosperity enjoyed by certain commercial cities at the very 
time when their sisters and rivals were most depressed. It was not 
that their shipping was less hit, but rather that their opportunities 
for a transfer of capital to manufactures were greater. This seems 
to have been especially true of the commercial cities of Pennsylvania 
and Maryland, doubtless in part because of the great demand for 
manufactured articles throughout the rapidly developing trans- 
Alleghany region. Baltimore is an example of a commercial city sud- 
denly widening its field of activities. The Baltimore newspapers 
during the year of the embargo have numerous advertisements of and 
other references to rapidly expanding manufactures. But Philadel- 
phia is a more conspicuous example of a commercial city—she had 
something like a twelfth of the shipping tonnage of the United 


1 Boston Gazette Extra; Jan. 11, 1808, puts the American tonnage at 1,200,000. Cf. Richmond Enquifer, 
Dec. 17, 1808, which estimates American shipping tonnage at 800,000. 
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254 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


States—able by means of manufactures, in spite of the gloom among 
the purely mercantile elements, to develop a high degree of prosperity, 
The present study will attempt to show that industrial gains so 
far offset commercial losses that the year of the embargo coincided, 
in Philadelphia at least, with a notable prosperity. It must be con- 
ceded, however, that the depression of the shipping interests was 
grave. So sudden a cessation of commerce spelled ruin to both cap- 
ital and labor in so far as either was unable to adjust itself to an 
industrial basis. And one is not surprised that those upon whom the 
burden of readjustment was imposed felt it keenly. Even granting 
that new avenues to prosperity lay open for those whose former life 
was commerce, still the process of readjustment is seldom simple 
and would ruin some, while enriching others. There is, therefore, in 
the very nature of things a dark side to Philadelphia lifein 1808. It 
is necessary to take that into account. The merchants and the sea- 
men dependent upon them for a livelihood were the victims of a 
situation in which manufactures was the only outlet. To such of 
them as were unable to avail themselves of this outlet the times were, 
indeed, hard. 

The merchants of Philadelphia had some warning of the embargo 
by the act of April 18, 1806, ‘‘to prohibit the importation of certain 
goods, wares, and merchandise.”” This act was originally passed as 
a threat, and stood for many months in abeyance. But fearing that 
now (December, 1807) the act was finally to be enforced, the Phila- 
delphians petitioned Congress to let it remain a dead letter. Their 
pe ition was tabled, however, by a vote of 79 to 50.2. But to men 
who opposed mere nonimportation, an embargo in addition was far 
from pleasing. 

It is not surprising, therefore, that Philadelphians were among the 
first to seek a loophole for evading the new legislation. Undaunted 
by their former experience with Congress, they now came forward 
with a second petition, this time for a grant of clearance papers to 
those vessels already in cargo when the embargo act was published. 
To grant this would have Jiberated from 300 to 400 vessels in the 
various ports of the country, in contravention of the entire purpose 
of the act, and Congress, after but slight debate, tabled this petition 
also by the decisive vote of 91 to 16.4 

These two experiences with Congress practically ended direct action 
on the part of the merchants. ‘They did, however, make one further 
protest, this time not against the embargo itself, but against an excep- 
tion to it, permitted by the President in his executive capacity. A 
certain Chinese who claimed to be a great mandarin of Canton, by 


-Annals of Congress xviii, 1179, 1187. 

‘Ibid., xviii, 1272. 

‘Jbid., 1275. Of the approximately 800,000 tons of American shipping in 1808, Pennsylvania, i. e., 
Philadelphia, possessed 86,723. Cf. Richmond Enquirer, Dec. 17, 1808. 


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PHILADELPHIA AND THE EMBARGO: 1808 255 


imposing upon the credulity or the internationalism of the President, 
had obtained permission to proceed in a vessel to Canton, and there 
to load a return cargo. This was too much for plain American citi- 
zens who had no flowing robes and peacock feathers wherewith to 
unlock the gates of commerce, and a group of Philadelphia merchants 
wiote to Albert Gallatin, the Secretary of the Treasury, their opinion 
of the transaction. They assured the Secretary in the first place 
that men of mandarin rank never emigrated from the Celestial 
Empire, and in the second, that several of their own number had 
lived in Canton and personally knew this soi-disant mandarin to be 
a person of no consequence. “To some of us he is known only as a 
petty shopkeeper in Canton, utterly incapable of giving a credit; 
and to ihe remainder he is altogether unknown; which would not be 
the case were his character and standing in any degree respectable.” 
They considered him an imposter and a tool in the hands of others, 
and allowed the Government to realize that it had been duped.® 

But these formal communicatins from rich and conservative: mer- 
chants were not the only anti-embargo protests which emanated from 
Philadelphia. Thomas Leiper, a friend and correspondent of Jeffer- 
son, described for the latter’s benefit the hardships of poor flatboat 
men under regulations compelling a bond of $300 a ton for little sloops 
in the coas wise trade; $9,000, therefore, for a vessel of 30 tons, worth 
all told no more than $300. In the case in point the owner had only 
a half interest, and Leiper exclaims, ‘‘Nine Thousand Dollars, is this 
reasonable, is this just to require a man his bond to follow his lawfull 
business for Nine Thousand Dollars who is only worth One Hundred 
and Fifty—But he must give it too for his all is in the Flatt and he 
most (sic) keep soul of Body together abstracted from his being able 
to pay for his other half of his Flat.’ 

On no other class in the community did the embargo weigh more 
heavily than on the officers of merchant ships, men bred to the sea 
as a profession, who could not lightly turn to the first new work that 
offered. Their complaint is full of pathos. In terms the most re- 
spectful, they urge Jefferson to keep their situation near his heart, 
“that means may be had to prevent our Families beging, there (sic) 
subsistance.”’ As for themselves they declare, ‘We become irksome 
to our friends; and no means by which we can subsist left us.’’7 

The common sailors, too, were wretched enough, and one can not 
but commiserate them. In one sense, however, their situation was 
less serious than that of their officers, because they had less to sur- 
render in leaving the sea, and might have been expected to adjust 


5Jefferson MSS. (Library of Congress), to Albert Gallatin, Aug. 10, 1808. 
®Ibid. Thomas Leiper to Jefferson. Philadelphia, Jan. 27, 1808. 
iJefferson MSS. Library of Congress. Philadelphia petition of Aug. 10,1808. See also a similar peti- 

tion of Aug. 8, 1808. 


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256 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


themselves to the lot of a laborer on the land with less difficulty. 
Be that as it may, their memorial to Jefferson relating their sad 
condition loses nothing in pathos from the English in which it 


is couched. 
Philadelphia Dat November 14" 1808 


We Distrsat Seamén of Philadelphia 
Petitioners to you Honoure 
Thomas Jeffarison President of the United States. We Humble Bag your Honur to 
Sum weekly allowance. Sir at as Hard times pon us seamen your Hounr Nos 50 or 
60 Coasting vissels will not carry 4 or 5000 seamen. Out of this Port Sir we Humble 
bag your Honur to grant us destras seainen sum releif for God nos what we will do 
your Petitioners is at Present utterly destitute of all Employamat We Humble Bag 


Honur to grant us som employmant. 
200 of us mat in the State Hous yard on friday Last we Have all wifes & famlys sir 


we Humble bags your Honur Pardon of at mis. 
(signed) Thomas Truman.® 

Shipowners, ship captains, common seamen, and longshoremen like 
the protégé of Leiper, of necessity bore the full burden of the embargo. 
Their situation was indeed a hard one, and confirms one in thinking 
that only great prosperity among other classes of citizens would 
justify an assumption of Philadelphia prosperity in 1808. But this 
is, of course, only one side of the case. And there is abundant evi- 
denee that other classes were actually in the enjoyment of the coun- 
terbalancing prosperity. That the city was at any rate far from pre- 
senting one unbroken front of misery is plain from the United States 
Gazette of October 8, 1808, which, though an opposition paper en- 
deavoring to make out the worst possible case, reluctantly admits even 
a certain degree of prosperity. “The embargo,” declares the Gazette, 
“has as yet produced comparatively little inconvenience in this city 
and its neighborhood. During the last winter, we began to suffer 
from the domiciliary visits of labourers, in forma pauperis, who could 
not find employment and were obliged to beg; but, generally, the 
stores laid in by poor men before the embargo were sufficent ‘to keep 
want from their doors’ until the spring opened; since when, the unex- 
ampled improvements in our city have given constant employment 
to eight or ten thousand of them.’’® To preserve the proper tone of 
opposition gloom, the Gazette predicts a hard winter as soon as frost 
suspends these building operations. Meanwhile, the fact would not 
down that Philadelphia was in the midst of a wholly unprecedented 
building boom. 

One estimate places the number of houses erected at nearly 400; 
another at 1,000. The former gives details as to the stimulus thereby 
contributed to general industry, and declares that “In Philadelphia 
the embargo, although felt severely, has not produced distress ac- 


*Ibid. Thomas Truman and others to Jefferson. Philadelphia Nov. 14, 1808. 
‘United States Gazette, Philadelphia, Oct. 8, 1808. 


PHILADELPHIA AND THE EMBARGO: 1808 957 


cording to the population. This is owing in a great measure to the 
buildings now erecting in the city. The capital of the merchants 
and monied men being withdrawn from commerce, has been appro- 
priated to other purposes. Almost four hundred houses are now 
erecting in the city, which, allowing twenty men to each house in- 
cluding carpenters, brickmakers, bricklayers, masons, labourers, &c., 
now give employment to 8,000 of our citizens who would otherwise 
be severely affected by the embargo. Besides, the banks have con- 
tinued their discounts, and have, indeed,so much money to lend, that 
no man who has tolerable personal security to offer will be refused a 
discount.’’ 

A rather playful explanation of this era of construction, involving 
the building of possibly 1,000" new houses at Philadelphia alone in 
the single year of the embargo, attributes it to the prosperity of the 
Philadelphia lawyers. To these virtuous citizens the embargo brought 
a blessing in disguise. The very act which restrained commerce multi- 
plied marine lawsuits, and their effect upon the gentry of the bar is 
humorously described by Horace Binney, one of its own distinguished 
ornaments. 


The stoppings, seizures, takings, sequestrations, condemnations, all of a novel 
kind unlike anything that had previously occurred in the history of maritime com- 
merce—the consequence of new principles of national law, introduced offensively 
or defensively by the belligerent powers—gave an unparalleled harvest to the bar of 
Philadelphia. No persons are bound to speak better of Bonaparte than the bar of 
this city. He was, it is true, a great buccaneer, and the British followed his exam- 
ple with great spirit and fidelity, but what distinguished him and his imitators from 
the pirates of former days was the felicitous manner in which he first, and they after- 
wards, resolved every piracy into some principle of the law of nations, newly dis- 
covered or made necessary by new events; thus covering or attempting to cover the 
stolen property by the veil of the law. Had he stolen and called it a theft, not a 
single lawsuit could have grown out of it. The under-writers must have paid and 
have been ruined at once and outright. But he stole from neutrals and called it 
lawful prize; and this led to such a crop of questions as nobody but Bonaparte was 
capable of sowing the seeds of. For while he did everything that was abominable, 
he always had a reason for it, and kept the world of the law inquiring how one of 
his acts and his reasons for it bore upon the policy of insurance, until some new 
event occurred to make all that they had previously settled of little or no applica- 
tion. In many instances the insurance companies got off; in others, though they 
failed, it was after a protracted campaign in which, contrary to campaigns in gen- 
eral, they acquired strength to bear their defeat. In the mean time, both in vic- 
tory and defeat, and very much the same in both events, the lawyets had their 
reward.!? 


It is hardly necessary to remark that although Philadelphia law- 
yers were reaping a harvest that has made their name a byword for 


10‘The Republican and Savannah Evening Ledger,’’ Oct. 28, 1808, quoting Gazette of the United 
States and New York Public Advertiser. 

11 Annals of Congress, XIX, 100-103. 

13 Charles Chauncey Binney, Life of Horace Binney, pp. 60-61. 


97244°—25 17 


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258 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


shrewdness and success, this could not represent a net gain to the 
community. The real expansion of Philadelphia lay in industrial 
enterprise, and progress in this direction appears to have more than 
compensated for losses commercial. 

In the very natwe of things the embargo proved a stimulus to 
manufactures. And nowhere was this stimulus more promptly felt 
than in Philadelphia. Manufactures were of course not unknown 
before 1808, but in that year they assumed an altogether fresh va- 
riety and significance. The Philadelphia Price Current devoted to 
them an article which produced a local sensation, and which the 
editor at once forwarded to Jefferson “to prove that by the Presi- 
dents originating partial deprivations, he has ultimately bestowed on 
his country immense and imperishable benefits.’’" 

The inclosure, which must have given keenest satisfaction to the 
harassed Jefferson, is here quoted in full, notwithstanding its length, 
as poof conclusive of the manufacturing impetus of the period. 


AMERICAN MANUFACTURES 


The following new American Manufactures, we quote with pleasure, as an evidence 
of the increase of public spirit, and a sure pressage of future prosperity and independ- 


ence. 


Floor Cloth carpets of any size with or without border per 
sq. yard $2. 25 
The same with three colours 2.00} Manufactured 
The same with two colours 1.75 by 
The same with one colour 1.50} John Dorsey. 


The patterns are in great variety and the colours bright, 
hard and durable. 


Cotton Bagging, per yd. 50 cts Apply to Maclure & Robertsons. 
Printed Calicoes (war’d fast colours) pr yd. 20¢c 

4-4 25 a 27 | Manufactured 
Shawls assorted 9-8 per shawl 21 by 

4-4 do. 32 ( John Thoburn 

5-6 do. 50a 58 & Co. 
Bed spreads 10-4 $1. 

EARTHEN WARE. 
— Pots, Coffee Pots and Sugar Boxes per my a 
Assorted Ware do. $1. 25 ae & 
Pots, Coffee Pots and Sugar Boxes per 
GLASS WARE, 
Green hif gall. Bottles per doz $2. } 
Do. quart Do do 1 
Green hif. gall. Jars do 2. Manufactured 
Do. quarts Do do by 
White nits do 7.50{ T. Harrison 
og do 3.75 & Co. 

Pocket Bottles do 80 
Glass per pound do 50 


Jefferson MSS. Library of Congress. Editor of the Philadelphia Price Current to Jefferson, Nov. 
7, 1808. 


PHILADELPHIA AND THE EMBARGO: 1808 259 


Windsor Soap per Ib. 35 

Fancy do. per dozen $248. W. Lehman, 

Sealing Wax per Ib. 50 cts. safy . Smith & son. 

White Lead per cwt. = a as” Manufactured 

Red Lead do by Dr. Joseph 

Litharge do 13 Strong. 
This extensive 

Shot B B B 1a 12 per cwt $11. manufactory 

Do. 8 G G and Buck 13. >(Paul Beck’s) 

Bar Lead 10.50} goes into oper- 
ation this day. 

Shot B B B la 10 per cwt sage mg 

Do. Goose and Buck 10.50 ishop 
parks. 

Bar Lead 

Floor Cloths per square yard $1.75)Apply at Do- 

Do. do do seas mestic Manufac- 

Cotton Flannel _ per yard tory. 

cs gall $ 60 

ns 1.90 

ELE 

—Vinos. Rect. G. P. Proof. . EDL SNE 1. 50 


Manufactories of various other articles are in operation, and several rapidly pro- 
gressing; we could not, however, for the present number ascertain with precision the 
just denomination of articles or their quotation, but shall soon increase our paper so 
as to embody them in the general prices of Domestic Articles, and for that purpose 


invite communications." 

It will have been noticed that white lead receives mention in this 
Price Current of November, 1808. Yet three months later, in Feb- 
ruary, 1809, William Dalzell of Philadelphia, apparently ignorant 
of the output of Doctor Strong, sent Jefferson “‘a sample of I believe 
the first White Lead ever manufactured in the U. States.” He 
complimented the President on the wisdom of the embargo as the 
measure which was making possible the industrial growth on every 
hand, and concluded with a fervent hope that Congress would adopt 
the one means which could insure permanence to these infant indus- 


tries, namely a protective tariff." 


4 Hope’s Philadelphia Price Current and Commercial Record in Jefferson MSS, 
Ibid. Wm. Dalzell to Jefferson, Philadelphia, Feb. 10, 1809. 


260 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Curiously enough, neither Dalzall nor the Price Current speaks of 
the heavier manufactures depending upon iron and steel. But an 
advertisement in Duane’s paper, the Aurora, supplies the missing evi- 
dence. 

AMERICAN MANUFACTURES 


The acting committee of the society of Iron-mongers, of the city of Philadelphia, 
give notice, that agreeable to a resolution of the society, they will receive proposals 
for manufacturing any of the following articles, to wit: 


Cast WAGGON BOXES, —, round inside. 
Cast SAD IRONS, made agreeable to the Dale co. patterns, and neatly ground to 


the face and edges. 
FRYING PANS with long handles. 
PLAIN IRONS, Socket and Firmer CHIZELS and GOUGES, ee cca ADZES, 


FILES, RASPS, STEELYARDS and HOES. 


The proposals must be in writing, stating the probable quantity that can be fur- 
nished within a stated period with their price, delivered in this city, and inall cases 
to be accompanied with samples. Application to be made to either of the subscribers. '® 

The wording of this advertisement is obscure, it must be granted, 
casting some doubts as to whether the articles were to be manufac- 
tured in Philadelphia or elsewhere. It is clear, however, that a 
society of ironmongers existed, and the presumption is strongly 
in favor of their being in active business. 

From time to time, the Aurora contained other advertisements 
bearing witness to still greater diversity in Philadelphia manufac- 
tures. Thus machines for repairing weavers’ reeds,” felting superior 
to the imported," satinets, muslinets, cotton stripes, bed tickings,’ 
Germantown stockings, socks, and gloves, fleecy hosiery, and cotton 
and woolen yarns,” all cortributed to American self-sufficiency, and 
to the enrichment of their entrepreneurs. 

It is thus apparent that Philadelphia prosperity in 1808 was not a 
mere shifting of wealth from merchants to their lawyers, but a genu- 
ine progress, resting on an active and diversified industrial basis. 
As Charles Jared Ingersoll summarized it, 


Who that walks the streets of Philadelphia, and sees, notwithstanding a twelve 
months stagnation of trade, several hundred substantial and elegant houses building, 
and the labouring community employed at good wages, who reads at every corner 
advertisements for workmen for factories of glass, of shot, of arms, of hosiery and 
coarse cloths, of pottery and many other goods and wares; who finds that within the 
last year rents have risen one-third, and that houses are hardly to be had at these 
prices; that land is worth, as Mr. Brougham observes, much more than it is in Mid- 
dlesex; in a word, who perceives, wherever he goes, the bustle of industry and the 
smile of content; who, under such circumstances, that is not too stupid to perceive, 


16 Aurora, Philadelphia Mar. 21, 1808. 
WIbid., Apr. 14, 1808. 

8 Ibid., June 3, 1808. 

Tbid., Oct. 18, 1808. 

* Ibid., Nov. 2, 1808, 


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PHILADELPHIA AND THE EMBARGO: 1808 261 


and too prejudiced to believe when he does perceive, can doubt the solid capital 
of this country? #! 


Nicholas Biddle also, though he has less to say about the embargo 
and its effects than one would expect from so important a man of 
affairs, confirms Ingersoll’s estimate of Philadelphia prosperity. 
Writing to a friend in Paris, he says, * 

You would scarcely recognize Philadelphia, so much has it grown and improved. 
Among your former acquaintances, Cadwalader is always here and prospering. His 
wife has just presented him with a third child. Chauncey is making a fine fortune, 
and surely no one deserves it more than he. As for politics, our actual position is 
not the most agreeable. The embargo presses heavily on the people, but it has been 
put in execution without difficulty, and as the people is very sane, the session of Con- 
gress soon to meet will be peaceably awaited. In spite of this the embargo appears 
to have wrought some change in New England, where the elections have terminated 
in favor of the Federalists. There is even an appearance . . . that the Government 
of the United States will pass once more into the control of the Federalist Party, or 
at least that the embargo will be raised before very long. In all these matters I do 
not mingle. After my long absence, it is impossible to become a very zealous par- 
tisan, and I am occupying myself with my profession.”? 

Interesting testimony this is as to the possibility of living in 1808 
without worrying over the embargo, its wisdom, or its consequences, 
although no Philadelphian could quite ignore the prosperity his own 
city was harvesting. 

If confirmation of these estimates of Ingersoll and Biddle is needed, 
it is to be found in a communication of William Short, a friend of 
Jefferson, to the President. Short possessed a handsome fortune and, 
like Biddle, would have seen little to recommend in the embargo had 
it proved as ruinous as its enemies alleged. He writes, 

And this City (Philadelphia) has really acted as the government could wish on the 
subject of the embargo—I speak of those who are considered as of opposition politics 
& who are numerous—They frequently & publicly speak their determination to sup- 
port it, & if on a jury to punish with rigor the violators of it. I have more than once 
heard it affirmed & not contradicted, that if the merchants of this City were assem- 
bled; confined to Federalists alone, nine out of ten would approve the embargo, & 
of the Tenth disapproving, most of them would be men without capital.” 

But the best test of the economic situation, better than the enthusi- 
asm of Ingersoll and Short or the contentment of Biddle, was the 
state of political parties in 1808. Economics and politics are so 
interrelated that if commercial stagnation had proved ruinous to any 
considerable proportion of the citizens, popular discontent would have 
registered itself in the overthrow of the Republican machine. Noth- 
ing of the sort occurred. The State legislature passed a resolution 


%1Charles Jared Ingersoll, “A View of the Rights and Wrongs, Power and Policy of the United States 
of America.” (1808), p. 49. 

22Nicholas Biddle Papers. Library of Congress. I. 1775-1809. Nicholas Biddle to Mr. J. M. de la 
Grange. Sept. 26, 1808. 

% Jefferson MSS. Library of Congress. William Short to Jefferson, Aug. 27, 1808 


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262 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


most reassuring to the Federal authorities.* And although the cam- 
paign for the governorship in 1808 was warmly fought, the Federalists 
thinking that they had even made inroads upon the Irish vote*> which 
already by tradition belonged to the Democrats, nevertheless the final 
victory for Snyder and the party of Jefferson was decisive, the Re- 
publican majority being “immense,” to use the language of an enthusi- 
astic contemporary.” As one of the President’s correspondents in 
Philadelphia stated it, 

A stranger from reading our antirepublican newspapers, might have anticipated a 
different issue, but we are sound to the core. We believe the General Government 
has, by its measures, consulted our true interests, and we wished in the day of elec- 
tion to express that sentiment in the strongest possible terms.” 


In Congress the Pennsylvania delegation was not wholly united. 
One of its members, William Hoge, was irreconcilable, being the only 
man in Congress to vote with Barent Gardenier of New York for a 
frank submission to the edicts of Great Britain and France. But 
his colleague, Smilie, who led the proadministration forces of the 
State, made in the early debates a strong speech on behalf of the 
embargo,” and consistently maintained his position.*° The Penn- 
sylvania record varies only slightly between the 11-to 5 with 2 not 
voting, for the original embargo act of December 18, 1807, and the 
10 to 6 with 2 not voting, for the nonintercourse act which superseded 
it on February 27, 1809.” 

Whatever the temptation to oppose the embargo, Congressmen, at 
least from Philadelphia, were not allowed to forget the favor it 
enjoyed among the people back home. As some staunch defenders 
of the administration expressed it, 

We behold in a temporary suspension of our commerce an ephemeral & doubtful 
evil, producing a great, a growing & a lasting good. We see arising out of this cause 
the prolific sources of our internal wealth explored & with industry & ability di- 
rected thro’ channels, which while they benefit the enterprising, enrich our country 
with solid wealth & make her more independent & happy.* 

And when, in January, 1809, the friends of embargo were called 
for a last rally in its defense for the passage of amendments which 
would make its operation ironclad, Philadelphians, at least the 
numerous element among them whom a share in the industrial 


%Am. State Papers. For. Rel. III, 294, 295. 

% United States Gazette, Oct. 8, 1808. 

*The Palladium, Frankfort, Ky. Nov. 3, 1808. 

“Jefferson MSS, Library of Congress Elijah Griffith to Jefferson, Philadelphia Nov. 14, 1808. 

% Annals of Congress. XIX, 853. 

* Ibid., X VIII, 1710. 

*Ibid., XIX, 574. 

81 Journal of the House of Representatives. VI, 320-321. 

Thid., VI, 565-566. 

% Jefferson MSS. Library of Congress. Delegates of the Democratic Republicans of the city of Phil- 
adelphia to Jefferson. Mar. 1, 1808. 


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PHILADELPHIA AND THE EMBARGO: 1808 263 


prosperity served to strengthen in their fidelity to party, lent their 
fullest measure of support. A broadside of the times rings like a 
bugle call. 


ANOTHER 


TOWN MEETING 
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICANS, 


OF THE CITY AND COUNTY OF PHILADELPHIA, 

Your duty to your country—your political principles—your attachment to the pres- 
ent Administration—your sacred regard for the Union—and the fair fame of the city 
and county of Philadelphia, all imperiously call you to the State House on Tuesday 
next at 11 o’clock in the forenoon. 

The Friends of the Constitution, Union and Commerce, are invited to a Town 
Meeting. Come forth in all your strength. Be ye firm, vigilant, andactive. Your 
enemies are up and doing. January 29, 1809.** 

In Philadelphia, as we have seen, the ruin of powerful commercial 
interests brought a real and somewhat widespread distress. But in 
Philadelphia, much more than in many other localities subject to 
similar commercial losses, men found compensation, and frequently 
much more than compensation, in the development of a large-scale 
industrialism. On this basis was reared the superstructure of build- 
ing operations which made Philadelphia the wonder of the times, and 
at least one commercial city toward which Jefferson could point for 
vindication of his system. A prosperity in which so many types of 
citizens participated clinched the loyalty of city and State to the 
political party which sponsored it, and served to hold in the Demo- 
cratic household of faith a State whose defection would have been 
peculiarly embarrassing at a time when Federalism was regaining so 
much lost ground in New England. 

But this is drawing larger deductions than the thesis of the pres- 
ent paper undertook to establish. Its more modest task was to 
demonstrate that in the case of one great commercial city an em- 
bargo which should in theory have proved wholly ruinous, served in 
fact, partly in combination with growing demands from the western 
market, to stimulate manufactures to a point where prosperity 
exceeded adversity. It may be that the paper has incidentally dem- 
onstrated that the tradition that the hard times in 1808 were attrib- 
utable solely to the embargo, the weak device of an impractical phil- 
osopher, a tradition largely fostered by New England, should not be 
accepted without a certain degree of caution. For Philadelphia, at 
least, such an assumption concerning the embargo is untenable. 


% Broadside in the Library of Congress. Vol. 93. Penpsylvania. 


XIV. AGRARIAN DISCONTENT IN THE SOUTH: 1880-1900 


By BENJAMIN B. KENDRICK 
Columbia University 


265 


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AGRARIAN DISCONTENT IN THE SOUTH: 1880-1900! 
By BensaAMIN B. KENDRICK 


The causes of agrarian discontent in the South from 1880 to 1900 
were both social and economic. Time permits of the discussion of 
only two phases of these causes. First, the low social status of the 
southern farmer in 1890, relative to his high status.in.1860; second 
the lien law system which was a grievance peculiar to the southern 
farmer of this period and not. shared by his brother inthe West. 

In order to understand the first cause, it is necessary to remind 
ourselves of the fact that previous to the Civil War the agricultural 
class in the South was by far the most articulate in that section and 
even to a certain extent in the United States. Their manners and 
customs fixed the standard of polite society. They dominated the 
politics of their counties and States, and until the election of Abra- 
ham Lincoln in 1860 they were not without a major share of influ- 


ence in the National Government. Even in the cities their influence 


was potent, for what commercial and industrial interests there were 
did not challenge the dominance of the planters. The merchants de- 
pended for their prosperity upon the patronage of the farmers and 
were distinctly secondary in importance to them. There were not 
enough manufacturers in the South before 1860 to feel a distinct class 
interest. Professional men such as lawyers, physicians, clergymen, 
editors, and teachers were largely drawn from the agricultural 
classes. Hence their views were reflected in the courtrooms and legis- 
lative halls, in the pulpits, in the columns of the newspapers and 
magazines, in the academies and colleges. At no other period in 
American history were the ideas and ideals.of one class_so com- 
pletely unchallenged as were those of the southern planters during 
the last three decades of the ante-bellum South. 

Certainly not all farmers were large slaveholders, but the small 
farmer shared in the benefits that accrued to agriculture as a whole 
because of the dominance of the planters in the county seats, the 
State capitals, and even in Washington. No greater mistake can be 
made than to suppose that there was any great social demarcation 
among southern planters derived from the numbers of acres owned 
or slaves held. I am referring only to those farmers who depended 


1W.S. Morgan, History of the Wheel and Alliance, 1891; C. H. Otken, The Ills of the South, 1894; E. A, 
Allen, Labor and Capital. 
267 


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268 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


upon cotton as their means of livelihood. The cotton industry was 
too young to have developed an aristocracy. It must be remembered 
that there had been only two generations of cotton growers when the 
Civil War began, and in many sections there had been but one. Even 
in the counties of western Georgia, where the Creek Indians had lived 
until the late twenties, and in which section I have made considerable 
personal investigation, I have found that nearly all the farmers there 
in 1860 had eome with very little wealth in money orslaves. The 
same thing was true of the newer cotton regions of Alabama, Mis- 
sissippi, northern Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas. Even in the 
older cotton regions of eastern Georgia, western South Carolina, North 
Carolina, and Tennessee, not more than two generations of cotton 
growers had lived before 1860. It is idle to suppose that in these 
regions there were any great marked social differences. Land was 
cheap and even small farmers owned several hundred acres; so 
when we say that social and political life in the South was dominated 
by the agriculturists, we mean all the cotton farmers. We are not 
considering here the great rice, sugar, and tobacco growers of South 
Carolina, Louisiana, and Virginia. Here there was, indeed, some- 
thing of an aristocracy. Nor are we thinking of the so-called poor 
whites of the great pine barrens or their economic kinsmen of the 
mountainous country. Among these people hardly any class con- 
sciousness existed. 

Twenty years after he War between the States closed, the same 
people or their sons were living in the cotton regions of the South. 
Some of them owned less land than in 1860, some more. The aver- 
age size of farms had declined somewhat, because there were more 
farmers. The estate of a father may have been divided among his 
sons. There were a few newcomers from the North or from the 
poorer white classes of tne mountains or the pine barrens. <A few 
negroes owned part of the land of their old masters; but essentially 
the same people or their sons were raising cotton in 1890 as in 1860, 
and on the same land. But how changed their condition! They 
were no longer the social leaders. The State governments had gen- 
erally passed from their hands. They controlled the counties in 
only those sections where there were no urban communities worthy 
the name city. Their influenee at Washington under a Democratic 
administration was next to nothing and under a Republican admin- 
istration was quite nothing at all. Preachers no longer ransacked 
the Scriptures to find that God wholly approved the interests of agri- 
culture, but preached the gospel according to Henry Ward Beecher 
and Samuel Smiles. Lawyers found fatter fees serving the interests 
of railroads, merchants, urban real estate dealers, lumber kings, min- 
ing princes and the new manufacturing classes whose enterprise was 
creating that “New South” hailed first by Ilenry W. Grady and after- 


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AGRARIAN DISCONTENT IN THE SOUTH: 1880—1900 269 


wards by thousands of orators from high-school rostrums to legislative 
halls. 

The prosperity of the South still depended to a large extent upon 
the size of the cotton crop and the price of the staple, but the grow- 
ers were no longer the dominant class. Social prestige no longer 
depended upon ownership of land, but upon the ownership of amerchan- 
dising house, city real estate, stock in a manufacturing enterprise or 
bank, or even upon a managerial or technological position in one of 
these establishments. To all of these the farmer was socially inferior, 
no matter if his father had lorded it over half a hundred slaves and 
owned 2,000 acres of land. Even the $20-a-month clerks in the stores 
regarded themselves as better than the farmers. The very mechanics 
or factory operatives, descendants for the most part of the despised 
poor whites, yielded nothing of social prestige to the farmers. At 
least they lived in the city and had advantages which the farmers did 
not have. 

This change in social status had been caused by an economic rev- 
olution that had taken place in less than 30 years. What were its 
causes? In the first place, to the farmer, the Civil War and Recon- 
struction had brought desolation and ruin. In the cities a war fol- 
lowed by reconstruction had accelerated if not caused an industrial 
revolution similar in character to that which had taken place in 
England nearly a century before, and in the East 50 years before. The 
farmer had taken up the burden of making a living in 1865 under most 
trying circumstances. His stock was killed or stolen, his fences and 
barns and frequently his dwelling were destroyed or in poor repair, 
his land had deteriorated from poor managememt, his slaves were 
freed, thus tending to confuse freedom from slavery with freedom 
from any sort of labor. Then came from 5 to 10 years of reconstruc- 
tion during which the negroes became even more demoralized and 
disinclined to work for wages. The effort to continue to utilize the 
negro as the basis of farm labor first gave rise to the so-called black 
codes, which had for their main purpose the forcing of negroes to take 
positions as agricultural laborers on the lands of their old masters. 
It is true that these codes contemplated a sort of peonage for the 
negro and from that standpoint were indefensible in the North which, 
so its leading politicians declared, had just fought a four years’ war 
for the purpose of ridding the country of every sort of slavery and serf- 
dom. Hence these codes became null and void through the passage 
of the Civil Rights Act and the Fourteenth Amendment. From the 
southern farmer’s point of view, these laws were necessary if the land 
was to continue to support the negroes and themselves, for it was a 
pretty generally accepted conclusion, tested by a year or more of expe- 
rience, that the negro was disinclined to render steady service on a 
freedom of contract wage basis. Even the more conscientious agent 


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270 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


of the Freedmen’s Bureau admitted that a contract in the eyes of the 
negroes was not a very sacred document. 

Then came the effort to obtain work from the negro by placing at 
his disposal land ordinarily sufficient to constitute a one-mule farm. 
This was to be operated on the share basis, usually half and half, the 
landlord furnishing the house for the tenant as well as his stock and 
farming implements. Fertilizers and seed were paid for jointly, and 


the tenant was to pay out of his half at the end of the year whatever . 


the landlord had advanced for his maintenance. Under this so-called 
“cropping system”’ the negro was much happier than under the wage 
system. For the first time in his life he enjoyed the blessing of 
self-determination as to the disposal of his own time and efforts. He 
could work when, if, and as he pleased. The landlord was free to 
give him advice which was usually humbly received with expressions 
of gratitude and respect and quickly forgotten or quietly ignored. 

As long as the southern local and State governments were in the 
hands of the carpetbaggers, the landlord had little or no redress. 
But white dominion returned. One of the first acts passed by the 
redeemed legislatures were lien laws, ostensibly in the interests of the 
landlords, but, as the event proved, greatly to their detriment. The 
object of the laws was to give the landlord a mortgage upon the prod- 
ucts, both actual and potential, of the tenant, until the end of the 
year when the settlement was to be made. This would have bene- 
fited the farmer if he had had the capital himself with which the 
tenant produced the crop. But such capital only a very few farmers 
indeed possessed. They owned land which during the 30 years fol- 
lowing the Civil War was very low in value, so low in fact that it 
frequently happened that they could not obtain any money on it at 
all even if it were owned free and clear. 

We have alreay mentioned the fact that the close of the war left 
the farmer devoid of all sorts of capital except his land. Hence 
it became necessary for him to obtain credit from the town mer- 
chant, who in turn borrowed from the local banker, who in his 
turn was under obligations to the central banks, especially New York 
banks. Asa rule the merchant was unwilling to take a mortgage 
upon the farmer’s land, and the farmer seldom could borrow directly 
from the banker on his land as a security. Neither the banker nor 
the merchant could afford to tie up capital in securities that had 
such problematic value and upon which ready cash could hardly ever 
be obtained. Of all classes in business of any sort, the farmer could 
obtain credit only on the hardest terms and with the greatest diffi- 
culty. Even in case the farmer was able to borrow directly on his 
land, the terms were so hard and the amount raised so little that it 
usually was not long before he had consumed all that he had borrowed 
and was back again applying to the merchant for credit. During 


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AGRARIAN DISCONTENT IN THE SOUTH: 1880-1900 271 


the reconstruction period the merchants had lost considerable money 
by furnishing farmers and their negro tenants on no other security 
than personal notes. The declining prices and the undependableness 
of labor had made it very hard for the farmers to come out even 
after each year’s crop; hence it often happened that they were unable 
to meet their obligations to the merchant, who was thus put to the 
expense and trouble of a lawsuit. Consequently, when the lien laws 
were passed the merchant was quick to take advantage of them,and 
in a very few years it was the customary thing for a merchant to 
demand of every farmer who asked credit the execution of one of 
these “ironclad” or “anaconda” mortgages. In return for supplies 
for himself and tenants the farmer gave the merchant a mortgage on 
his crop, on his stock, and on his agricultural implements, wagons, 
buggies, etc. 

It was generally provided in the mortgage that the accounts on the 
merchant’s books would be incontestable as to the amounts which the 
farmer owed the merchant at the end of the year. It frequently hap- 
pened that the farmer’s and his tenants’ crops were not sufficient to 
pay these amounts at the end of the year; consequently the farmer 
was obliged to continue from year to year in debt to the same mer- 
chant under the same galling conditions. For the supplies which the 
farmer purchased on credit during the spring and summer, the mer- 
chant generally charged from 25 to 50 per cent above the local cash 
prices. The merchant demanded that the farmer and his tenants 
plant most of their land in cotton. His object in doing this: was 
twofold. In the first place, he would be sure to obtain a commodity 
which he could turn into money, and in the second place it meant 
that if the farmer did not raise his own meat and corn he would have 
to buy these products from the merchant and so increase the latter’s 
sales at very handsome profits. Thus it happened that the farmer’s 
capital, even with the addition of his personal labor, proved hardly 
sufficient to support himself and family in any sort of comfort. In 
thousands of cases, during the period of low prices for cotton in the 
early nineties, it proved altogether insufficient, and the land began to 
go piecemeal to the merchant. Cotton which during the seventies 
and eighties had averaged about 11 and 9 cents, respectively, averaged 
about 6} cents in the nineties, reaching the low level of 4.6 cents in 
1894. A good portion of the land consequently passed into the hands 
of merchants, who cropped it on their own account with negro or poor 
white tenants. As a rule negroes preferred to crop the land of mer- 
chants, as this removed them still further from any sort of supervision. 
As a consequence, the merchants were able to obtain for their own 
land the choice of the negroes, and the farmer saw his better tenants 
tolled off to the merchant lands and himself left with tenants of 
second-rate character and intelligence. 


272 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Of course, all farmers did not work their land by means of the 
cropping system. Some hired negroes for what was called standing 
wages, and many did all or a considerable part of the work them- 
selves. The farmer who did most or all of his work on a relatively 
small portion of land was usually better off than his neighbor who 
owned more land, but put it to cultivation in the hands of croppers. — 
That is to say, he was more likely to come out even at the end of 
the year, and if he was thrifty and a fairly good manager, he might 
even get ahead sufficiently to run his place on a pay-as-you-go basis. 
Hence we often hear of men being land poor. But the small farmer 
suffered from the low prices of the nineties and had in common with 
the other farmers the grievance against the State taxation system, 
the poor educational system, the railroads, and, most important of 
all, the national system of currency and taxation. 

Time does not permit me to go into detail concerning the griev- 
ances the farmers of the South had in these matters, but it will suf- 
fice to say that they were not unlike the same grievances that the 
farmers of the West had with regard to the same subjects. Prof. Solon 
Buck and other writers and investigators have stated very well what 
these grievances were and how the farmers attempted to remove 
them. The particular grievance of the southern farmer was the lien- 
law system, which kept him, as he often expressed it himself, the 
lien-law slave of the merchant. 

It has not been my purpose here to state how southern farmers 
came {o organize such societies as the Wheel and Industrial Union 
and the Farmers’ Alliance and finally to agitate for the capture of the 
Democratic Party to make it serve agrarian purposes or, failing that, 
to organize a new party, the Populist, to accomplish the same pur- 
pose. This sort of thing might serve very well for young southern 
historical] students who are looking for subjects for master’s essays 
or doctoral dissertations. One of my own students has in prepara- 
tion a doctor’s dissertation on the Populist Party in Georgia, and I 
see no reason why such dissertations might not be prepared on the 
general social, political, and economic conditions in the other South- 
ern States, covering the period from the point where the monographs 
on Reconstruction leave off to the close of the nineteenth century. 
It is my opinion that this period would prove very fertile in material 
for monographs that would help us to a just appreciation of the 
unfavorable conditions under which the southern farmer labored, and 
I am confident that such investigations would shatter the current 
erroneous notion that the southern farmers continued to dictate the 
policy of the State governments or the notion that it was their inter- 
est which the southern wing of the Democratic Party represented in 
the eighties and nineties, or for that matter represents at the pres- 


ent time. 


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XV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTROMAGNETISM DURING THE LAST 
HUNDRED YEARS 


By A. E. KENNELLY 
Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 


97244°—25——18 273 


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THE DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTROMAGNETISM DURING THE LAST 
HUNDRED YEARS 


By A. E. KENNELLY 


It is just 100 years ago since electricity and magnetism were dis- 
covered to be intimately connected. Prior to the year 1820, elec- 
tricity and magnetism were regarded as distinctly separated sciences. 
Electricity was produced by friction and also electrochemically by 
the voltaic cell. Magnetism resided in permanent magnets and was 
communicated from one steel bar to another by appropriate contact. 

In 1820 Hans Christian Oersted was professor of physics at Copen- 
hagen.' He had in his laboratory a battery of voltaic cells and a mag- 
netic needle. He knew that a wire carrying the current in a voltaic 
circuit becomes heated. The idea occurred to him that a metallic 
wire, heated in this way, might disturb a poised magnetic compass 
needle. He seems to have had no previous anticipation of the exist- 
ence of a magnetic field around such a wire. He tried the experiment 
and found immediately a very marked and definite influence exerted 
by the wire upon the needle. This was not a thermal, but a magnetic, 
effect. The needle deflected strongly. In a few minutes of labora- 
tory investigation, the two sciences of electricity and magnetism that 
had been separate and absolutely distinct in human thought since the 
night of time, were connected and became interrelated. Electromag- 
netism was born. 

The news of this remarkable discovery spread rapidly among scien- 
tists. But this was before the electric telegraphera. Only the sema- 
phore, working visually from hill to hill, transmitted messages along 
certain main Kuropean routes. Oersted’s public announcement from 
Copenhagen bears the date of July 21, 1820, and wasin Latin. This 
seems to have been the last announcement for the physical sciences 
transmitted in Latin through Europe, although Latin announcements 
in the botanical sciences have continued down to the present day. 
The news of the discovery was brought from Geneva to Paris by 
the French physicist, Arago, who repeated the experiment before the 
French Academy on September 11, 1820. Among those present was 
Prof. André Ampére of the Ecole Polytechnique. 


1Qersted, “ Experimenta circa effectum conflictus electriciinacum magneticam.” Hafn. July 21,1820. 
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2°76 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


The demonstration stirred Ampére profoundly. He immediately 
set up a voltaic battery and some magnetic needles to repeat the 
experiment. Test followed test successfully and Ampére could 
scarcely find time for rest. The French Academy was scheduled to 
meet in Paris on September 18. Within the intervening week, Ampére 
prepared an epoch-making academy paper, greatly extending the scope 
of Oersted’s discovery. 

With the precision and clarity that have made French science 
famous for centuries, Ampére connected electricity? and magnetism 
so definitely in experiment, in mathematics, and in logic, that ever 
since the two sciences have been inseparably associated. 

The next great step in the knowledge of electromagnetism was 
furnished by Faraday’s first discovery, in 1831, of electromagnetic 
induction.’ His researches continued for nearly 25 years, and indi- 
cated that electric forces are set up whenever relative motion occurs 
between a magnetic field and surrounding space. In particular, if 
relative motion occurs between a magnetic field and a conductor, an 
electric force is set up in the conductor, which may be utilized for 
producing an electric current. This discovery lies at the basis of all 
modern dynamo-electric machinery. Faraday actually constructed 
the first little dynamo-electric machine with his own hands. 

Whereas the Oersted-Ampére researches demonstrated a relation 
between magnetism and electric flow, involving mechanical forces, 
Faraday’s researches showed that any disturbance of a magnetic 
field, in time or in space, gave rise to electric phenomena. Re- 
searches made since Faraday’s time have shown that, reciprocally, 
any disturbance of an electric field, in time or in space, gives rise to 
magnetic phenomena. In that sense, both electric and magnetic 
phenomena have come to be regarded as collateral aspects of any 
electromagnetic disturbance. 

Prior to the year 1840, it may be said that there was no recognized 
science of energy, or capability of doing work. Energy was perhaps 
recognized as existing in various forms, such as heat energy, electric 
energy, magnetic energy, chemical energy and mechanical energy, 
including both potential and kinetic types; but there was no doctrine 
of equivalence between these forms. Owing to the work of many 
scientists during the decade 1840-1850, and particularly of Joule,‘ 


sAmpére, “Sur l’état magnetique des corps qui transmettent un courant d’é:ectricité”. Ann. Chem 
Phys.,Vol. xvi, Paris, 1821. 

Faraday, “‘Experimental Researches in Electricity,” Series I. London, 1831. 

4Joule, James Prescott. Mem. Manchester. Soc. Ser. II, VII 1846, VIII 1848, IX 1851, X 1852. Phil. 
Tr. 1850, 1852, 1853, 1856. Sturgeon’s Annals II 1838, III 1838-39, IV 1839-40, V 1840, VI 1841, VIII 1842. 
Phil. Mag. Ser. III, XIX 1841, XXII 1843, XXIII 1843, XXIV 1844, XXV 1844, XXVI 1845, XXVII 
1845, XXVIII 1846, XXX 1847, XX XT 1847; Series IV, II 1851, III 1852, IV 1852, VI 1853, XII 1856, XIV 
1857, XV 1858. 


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DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTROMAGNETISM LAST HUNDRED YEARS 277 


Helmholtz,' Colding,* Mayer and Kelvin,’ it came to be recognized that 
if energy is apparently created at any time and place, it is merely 
transformed from some preexisting stock. According to this doctrine, 
which is now generally admitted, energy may be converted from one 
form to another, upon a definite basis of equivalence, but can neither 
be created nor destroyed. As a consequence of this doctrine, it would 
follow that the sum total of all the energy existing in the known uni- 
verse remains constant. ‘This is the famous doctrine of the conser- 
vation of energy. It is regarded to-day as so axiomatic that it is 
hard to realize how recently the doctrine has been promulgated and 
accepted. 

A somewhat similar doctrine of the conservation of matter was not 
long since in very general acceptance. It was supposed that the total 
numbers of atoms of the different elementary substances remained 
constant, despite changes in their chemical combinations. This doc- 
trine of the conservation of matter, however, has had to be surren- 
dered, or at least considerably modified, as the result of researches on 
radium during the last few years. It is believed that atoms of ra 
dium, and other radioactive elements, occasionally break up spontane- 
ously, as though by internal explosion, into atoms of other and simpler 
elements. Energy in relatively very large quantities is released by 
these atomic explosions. 

Except for electroplating, the first application of electromagnetics 
was to telegraphy. The electric telegraph has a long history and a 
considerable literature prior to 1837; but its industrial introduction 
dates from about 1838 in England, on the Great Western Railway, 
using six wires. Very little was known about it publicly until 1845, 
when the arrest of an escaping murderer was accomplished with the 
aid of a telegram, thus drawing public attention to the utility of the 
telegraph. The first telegraph construction company—The Electric 
Telegraph Co.—was formed in that year. 

In America, Joseph Henry published in 1831% the results of a series 
of researches he had made while in the then frontier town of Albany, 
N. Y., on the design and construction of electromagnets. In 1835 
he developed and demonstrated the electromagnetic relay principle, 
whereby a feeble electric current, received from a distance, may 


5 Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand: Uber d’Erhaltung d’Kraft. Berol, 1847. Uberd. Wechsel- 
swirkung d.Natur-Krafte und die darauf beziiglichen Ermittlungen d’Physik. Kénigsberg, 1854. Uber 
d.Dauer u. d. Verlauf der durch Stromesschwankungen inducirten elekr. Strome. Pogg. Ann. 83, 1851. 

6Colding, Ludwig Augustus. An examination of steam engines and the power ofsteam. Copenhagen, 
1851. Underségelse over Vanddampene og deres bevaegende Kraft i bampmaskinen. Danske Vid. Selsk. 
Skriften, 1852. Underségelser om de almindelige Naturkrifter og deres gjensidige afhangighed og i siir- 
deleshed om den ved visse faste Legermes Gniding utviklide Varme. Ibid., 1854. Om Magnetens Ind- 
virkning paa det bléde Jern. 

7Lord Kelvin (Sir William Thomson) “ Reprints of papers on electrostatics and magnetism.” 
London, 1872. 

8 Silliman’s Journal, 1831, No. 19, p. 400. 


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278 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


cause a delicate receiving electromagnet to actuate a light contact, 
and thus close the local circuit of a more powerful electromagnet. 

Morse demonstrated his electromagnetic telegraph, working over 
half a mile® in 1837, and sought in vain, until the closing hours of the 
congressional session in 1843'°, for congressional appropriation to build 
a telegraph line. The first single-wire Morse line was completed from 
Baltimore to Washington on June 4, 1844." The first published use 
of the electric telegraph to the determination of longitude, appears to 
have been between the Capitol at Washington and Battle Monument 
Square, Baltimore,” June 12, 1844. 

The first submarine telegraph cable to be put into public use, was laid 
between Dover and Calais, across the English Channel, in 1851, fol- 
lowing a partially successful attempt between Dover and Cape Gris- 
Nez, in 1850. The first transatlantic cable between Ireland and 
Newfoundland was laid in 1858, but failed electrically a few weeks 
after completion, and after having transmitted over 700 messages." 
The first permanently successful cable between Ireland and New- 
foundland was laid in 1866. At the present time there are no less 
than 15 such cables laid across the Atlantic Ocean. 

Returning to the scientific side of the subject, Prof. James Clerk 
Maxwell showed, in 1867, that the known properties of electricity and 
magnetism led to the conclusion that electromagnetic disturbances 
were propagated through nonconductors, in waves, at definite speed. 

These electromagnetic waves were also susceptible of being re- 
flected and refracted like waves of light. He put forward the theory "4 
that light was merely an electromagnetic disturbance, of such wave 
lengths as the eye could detect. This celebrated electromagnetic 
theory of light has since received confirmation and is now generally 
accepted. According to this doctrine, not only visible light, but all 
radiation of the thermal type, is electromagnetic. This in turn in- 
volves the theory that all luminous and thermally radiating sources 
are electromagaetically active, and therefore that all bodies are com- 
posed of atoms, which, at all working temperatures, are electro- 
magnetically active. In that sense, all the rays of light and heat 
we receive from the sun are received as electromagnetic waves, 
across the intervening 150,000,000 kilometers and are steady wire- 
less “messages’’ from the solar atoms. The electromagnetic theory 
of light was amply supported by the researches of Hertz, who, in 
1888, showed experimentally that the electromagnetic waves emitted 


9“ Life of S. F. B. Morse.” §S.I. Prime, N. Y., 1875, Chapter XI pp. 473-509. 

® Congressional Globe, Feb. 21, 1843 

nl“ Life of S. F. B. Morse, ”’ p. 509. 

Tbid. 

8“ Life Story of Sir C. T. Bright.” Charles Bright., Rev. 1908. 

4 James Clerk Maxwell, ‘‘ Method of making a direct comparison of electrostatic with clectrodyn, force 


and the electromagnetic theory of light ,"” London, Phil. Trans. 158, 1869. 


DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTROMAGNETISM LAST HUNDRED YEARS 279 


by a spark-discharging circuit possessed all the optical properties 
presaged by Maxwell’s theory. It is now generally accepted that 
the invisible electromagnetic waves emitted from a radio telegraph 
antenna, or ‘‘ wireless mast,’’ differ from polarized light waves only 
as to their length. Radio waves vary from, say 50 meters to 20 kilo- 
meters in length. Visible light waves vary in length, approximately 
from 0.4 to 0.8 micron (millionth meter). The shortest radio wave 
would contain about 60,000,000 of the longest visible light waves. 
The long radio waves, however, can, fortunately, bend around the 
spherical earth’s surface and follow its contour; whereas the short 
optical waves, except under extreme limiting conditions, move for- 
ward in straight or very nearly straight lines. 

Modern electrochemical researches have led to the view that chemi- 
cal affinity and chemical forces of molecular union are electromagnetic. 
This doctrine seems to be rapidly gaining support. It leads to the 
conclusion that, in a certain sense, chemistry is a branch of electro- 
magnetics, and that chemical combinations can be explained electro- 
magnetically. The explanations, however, are as yet only in an 
elementary stage. 

Moreover, modern electric researches have led to the very generally 
accepted belief that all the atoms of elementary chemical substances 
are composed of electric charges called electrons. Just as a molecule 
of matter is supposed to be built up of atoms, so atoms are supposed to 
be built up of electrons. It has been estimated that the radius of 
an atom, assumed as spherical, is about 10~’° meter, or, as it has 
been expressed—if a drop of water were magnified to the size of the 
earth, the atoms in it might be expected to be about baseball size. 
But the “radius” of an electron is supposed to be about 10-" meter, 
or one aundred-thousandth of the atomic radius, so that the atoms 
magnified into baseballs, might then have their component electrons 
sufficiently large to be detected by a good microscope. 

Moreover, the electrons are commonly supposed to be in planetary 
or orbital motion around their atomic nuclei, so that, during the last 
half century, an atom has come to be regarded as a microcosm or 
planetary system, something like the solar system on an enormously re- 
duced scale. There is at least as much evidence for the existence of the 
electron to-day, as an individual electromagnetic entity, as there was 
50 years ago for the atom as an individual chemical entity. More- 
over, the evidence is strong that the electrons in the different chemi- 
cal atoms are all similar; so that, for example, an atom of hydro- 
gen differs only from an atom of oxygen in the number, grouping, 
and orbital relations of its component electrons. In other words, the 
electron theory of the last two decades, as now very generally accepted, 
claims that electrons are the bricks of the materal world, out of which 
some 90 different kinds of chemical atoms are built, and that these 


2980 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


bricks are electric. Chemical atoms are therefore built up of organized 
electric charges, and chemistry is the science which teaches their elec- 
tromagnetic relations, as revealed in combination. 

This widespread modern electron theory has appropriated the whole 
material universe as itsown. It claims that all matter is an aggre- 
gation of molecules, themselves made up of atoms, which in their 
turn are microcosms of organized electromagnetic entities; so that in 
this sense, everything is electricity. The properties of matter, like 
mass and inertia, thus become electromagnetic properties, and are 
explainable by the laws of electromagnetism as worked out in the 
laboratory. As to the fundamental nature of electricity and of mag- 
netism, we have as yet only speculation; but the two are known to 
be definitely interconnected and related in such a manner that, if 
either of them could be explained, the nature of the other would 
thereby become determined. 

The development of electromagnetic theoretical science during the 
last century has therefore led to its absorbing nearly all the other 
branches of natural philosophy. In the case of gravitation, however, 
although attempts have been made to find an explanation, by the 
electron theory, it has not yet been considered as accounted for. 
Very recently, the Einstein theory of relativity, which has received 
much scientific attention, seeks to explain gravitational force as a 
pseudo phenomenon, due to the departure of space from ordinary 
Euclidian three-dimensional geometry in the neighborhood of matter. 
It may be one of the tasks of scientific history of the next century 
to trace the influence of this theory on thought and accomplishment. 
At present it would seem that the results of the theory have no sig- 
nificance in ordinary business, insignificance in engineering or geodesy, 
a small but appreciable significance in astronomy, but an enormous 
significance in philosophy. For instance, all space is claimed to be 
finite in Einstein theory; but is infinite, or at least has no limits, in 
Euclidian theory. The Einstein theory, however, claims to be in 
accordance with, and to be based upon, the geometrical postulates 
of electromagnetics; so that, in this sense, it is an electromagnetic 
theory. 

Turning once more to electromagnetic applications introduced dur- 
ing the last century, a complete list of them would be very lengthy. - 
The following are important applications: electric lighting, heating, 
transportation, power transmission and distribution, electrochemical 
industry and electric furnaces, also electric communication by wire 
and radio, both telegraphically and telephonically. In wire teleg- 
raphy, the total length of working submarine cables on the globe 
(262,000 nauts) would go around its Equator nearly 12 times; while 
the total length of telegraph lines (2,520,000 km.) would go round it 


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DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTROMAGNETISM LAST HUNDRED YEARS 281 


nearly 63 times. In radio, or wireless telegraphy, signals are now re- 
ceivable from powerful sending stations all around the world, un- 
der favorable conditions. The time required for the passage of any 
single radio wave to go half-way round the globe to the Antipodes 
has never yet been measured, but is estimated to be about one-tenth 
of a second; so that we are all living, according to that belief, 
on a tenth-of-a-second world of utmost separation in time. The 
human voice in speech, directed to a telephone transmitter at Arling- 
ton radio station near Washington, D. C., has been heard faintly 
and understood, at a receiver under the shadow of the Eiffel Tower 
in Paris, and also at a radio station in Hawaii. 

Electromagnetism, during its history of the last hundred years, 
has, as a theoretical science, laid claim to absorb and include the 
sciences of physics, chemistry, and of the material universe. As an 
applied science it has been harnessed to many duties. It has de- 
‘stroyed distance and time as an agency of world communication. 

Looking backward through the century that has passed, the science 
of electromagnetism has siowly but steadily advanced, without inter- 
ruptions, discontinuities or reversals. The internationally accepted 
experimental facts bearing on the subject make up collectively the 
sum of human knowledge and experience in this domain. As time 
has gone on, this sum total has always increased. The interpretations 
of these facts, or the hypotheses built upon them, have undergone 
modification from time to time, as new facts have been added, so 
that electromagnetic theory is thus always, to a certain extent, in a 
state of flux, whereas electromagnetic knowledge is, in general, only 
modified by time in the sense of accretion. A very striking example 
of this contrast is offered by the recent Einstein doctrine of relativity. 
If future measurements should confirm this theory and lead to its 
general acceptance, electromagnetic knowledge would be scarcely 
affected; but our interpretation of this knowledge would be almost 
revolutionized. Our intellectual relations with the universe, so far 
as we can know it, would be profoundly modified. 

The history also indicates that the study of electromagnetism is 
materialistic or imaginative or spiritual, according to the viewpoint 
and philosophy of the student contemplating the“admitted facts. If 
the student has been materialistic, so also has been the electromagnet- 
ism he interpreted. If the student has been of an imaginative soul, 
so also has been the electromagnetic theory which the same facts 
depicted to his mind. From any aspect, however, electromagnetism 
is so great a subject that it may be regarded as coterminous only 
with all creation. 


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XVI. DESCRIPTION AND TRAVEL AS SOURCE MATERIAL 
FOR THE HISTORY OF EARLY AGRICULTURE IN 
PENNSYLVANIA 


By RAYNER W. KELSEY 
Haverford College 


283 


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DESCRIPTION AND TRAVEL AS SOURCE MATERIAL FOR THE HISTORY 
OF EARLY AGRICULTURE IN PENNSYLVANIA 


By Rayner W. Kesey 


INTRODUCTION 


It is proposed to illustrate in this paper the type of material for 
agricultural history that may be gathered from works usually clas- 
sified in libraries as “ Description and travel.” This material is fairly 
distinct from official documents such as customhouse records, agri- 
cultural laws, probate-court records, and departmental reports of 
various kinds. Some material, such as newspaper items, personal 
memoirs, and account books, does not always classify readily under 
either of the above headings, but usually in its nature and function 
belongs in the category of “‘ Description and travel.” 

This type of material has destinctive value and definite limitations. 
It constantly supplies data, especially in the early periods of Ameri- 
can history, that can be obtained from no other source. On the 
other hand, it must be used with care, for frequently the author was 
so shortsighted as not to foresee the obligation of accuracy that 
would be placed upon historians of later centuries. 

For example, the present writer recently secured transcripts from 
the archives of Basel, Switzerland, of two descriptions of an early 
land project in South Carolina. They were letters written home by 
two actual settlers in the same vicinity at the same period. Each 
one described the climate, soil, products, labor conditions, ete. Then 
one of them declared the place to be an ‘earthly paradise,” while 
the other called it ‘‘a damned fraud.’”’ It was a considerable discrep- 
ancy for the historian to wrestle with. Unfortunately the profane 
conclusion bore up better under the test of historical scrutiny. 

In purely travel accounts something can usually be judged from 
the writer’s general equipment for accurate observation. If he was 
a farmer himself, or for any reason especially interested in farm 
problems and progressive farming methods, his record is of course 
greatly enhanced in value. Fortunately, a good many early trav- 
elers were themselves farmers, interested in all the vital phases of 
farm practice. 

285 


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286 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


Tn some cases a writer’s accuracy in minor details may be checked 
at the present day, and thus some gauge be had of the general 
accuracy of his mental habits. 

The present writer recently followed the trail of an eighteenth 
centiiry traveler in Pennsylvania! and measured, by automobile speed- 
ometer, the distances indicated between stops. By checking the points: 
covered by the early traveler during 15 days of travel, it was fownd' 


that he had been surprisingly exact in his statement of distances. So. 


in many other respects his accuracy stood the test. One more exam- 
ple may be cited. The early traveler visited a little lake or pond and 
recorded that it was “(18 feet deep [and] peculiarly full of excellent 
trout.”’? The modern voyageur visited the same pond and made inqui- 
ries at the farm on its borders. After some casual remarks he asked the 
farm wife whether there were any fish in the pond. She answered, 
“plenty of trout.” He then said, “‘The pond looks deep.” “Yes,” 
was the answer, ‘‘18 feet at the deepest.’’ After a few such tests as 
that, one is justified in placing some dependence on the general accu- 
racy of a journalist’s observations. 


It remains to illustrate in a few topical studies the value and’ 


availability of description and travel as source material. In these 
studies it will be necessary, as it always is, to supplement the account: 
occasionally with materials not to be precisely classified under the 
above rubric. The main reliance will, however, be upon early travel. 
and description. 

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 


In the early agriculture of Pennsylvania, as in other parts of Amer-- 
ica, precious little was thought or written about soil improvement. 

It is of interest aud value, however, to follow such a topic in order: 
to see the rise of a more progressive practice. 

William Penn was forward looking in this matter, as in policies of 
statecraft. In 1686 he wrote as follows to the man whom he had: 
selected to manage his farming project: 

I recommend to thee for the gardens and improvement of the lands, that ashes and’ 
soot . . . are excellent for the ground, grass, or corn. Soot may be gotten at Phila~ 
delphia for fetching, I suppose; it should be sowed pretty thick for corn, in Spring, 
not too thick; its best for low lands and such as are moist. Let me desire thee to. 
Jay down as much as thou canst with english grass and plow up new Indian fields. 
and after a crop or two they must be laid down so too; for that feeds sheep, andi 
that feeds the ground, as well as they feed and clothe us, and fitts it for grass, corn: 
and wine,*® 


i Theophile Cazenove. See Cazenove Journal, 1794. Haverford College Studies, No. 13. Haverford,, 


Pa., 1922. 
2 Cazenove Journal, 43. 
*William Penn to James Harrison,in Penn MSS., Domestic and Mise., 32 (Historieal Saciety of 


Pennsylvania). 


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MATERIAL FOR HISTORY EARLY AGRICULTURE IN PENNSYLVANIA 287 


That the father of Pennsylvania had a lively interest in farni prob- 
jems is shown by his inclusion, in one of his early accounts of Penii= 
sylvania, of a letter to him from Robert Turner. This letter tells of 
various experiments in farm practice tried by Turner. Among other 
things he tells of planting some patches of grass seed and using ma- 
nure on part of it. The patch manured made the poorest grow th.‘ 

In 1698 Thomas’s Account records that although limestone is plen- 
tiful and cheap, it is not used as fertilizer because of the natural fer- 
tility of the soil. Here is an early admission of the deliberate pol- 
icy of neglecting the soil and squandering its stored up wealth, the 
results of which bear heavily upon thousands of Pennsylvania farmers 
to-day. 

From 1700 to 1750 almost nothing has been found on the subject 
of soil improvement, in an examination of the most promising collec- 
tions of description and travel, manuscript and printed. 

In the middle of the century Peter Kalm observed that there was 
little manure available because cattle were not housed in winter nor 
“tended” in the fields. Hence, he says, the fields are allowed to lie 
fallow a few years, after three years of grain raising.* 

Near the middle of the century there was some discussion about 
the value of potash in agriculture, and some private correspondence 
between Philadelphia and London on the subject of a wonderful, 
secret fertilizer being perfected by the English writer that will “make 
Corn Grow in Barren and Sandy Ground.” 

Between 1775 and 1800 there is a great outcry against wasteful 
methods of soil exhaustion, and some amendment in this respect. 
A few scattering items may show the trend of the times: 

1773. Alexander Thompson tells of buying a farm and finding the 
accumulated manure of 11 years piled up and unused. He hauled it 
to the ficlds and was rewarded with rich crops of wheat, rye, and 
Indian corn.’ 

About 1775 a traveler records that John Bartram, of Philadelphia, 
conducts spring water to his reservoir; then he throws in old lime, 
ashes, and horse dung and turns the water from the reservoir on his‘ 
fields twice a week; he also spreads old hay, straw, and fodder on the 
ground in the fall. Thus he gets 53 hundredweight of hay per acre 
on land th t would hardly have grown “five fingers’’ before.* 

1783. Farmers sometimes use lime and gypsum as fertilizer.® 
Schoepf records, 1783-84, that much lime is used on the land; it 
costs from 8d. to 13d. per bushel, Pennsylvania eurrency; on ordinary 


*“Penn’s Further Account” in Pennsylvania Magazine of History, LX, 74 
‘In Myers Narratives of Pennsylvania, 320. 

‘In Pinkerton, Voyages, XIII, 410. 

7In Pennsylvania Magazine of History, VIII, 321. 

*Crévecoeur, Letters (Everyman’s ed.), 188-189. 

* Pennsylvania Magazine of History, V, 76 


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288 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


upland they use from 15 to 20 bushels per acre; on clayey, low 
ground more than twice that amount.’ 

From this time forward there are frequent references by Schoepf, 
Cazenove, Liancourt, and others, to the use of lime, marl, gypsum, 
and barn manure. Rush says tha' Jacob Berger first used gypsum 
some years before the Revolution on a city lot in Philadelphia. 
Richard Peters indicates that he became acquainted with the use of 
gypsum in 1770. 

A Pennsylvania farmer wrote in 1788 that plaster of Paris, lime, 
and mar! act only as medicines or cordials upon the land; they give 
it a temporary activity which produces large crops and exhausts the 
soil; he quotes a German saying that plaster of Paris ‘makes rich 
children but poor grandchildren.” His conclusion is that such fer- 
tilizers should be used only in conjunction with large quantities of 
stable manure, which he calls the only proper food for the earth." 
This treatise of 1788 sounds almost like a current number of the 
Farmers’ Bulletin published by the Department of Agriculture at 
Washington. 

Even before the end of the century there is agitation for deeper 
plowing, better crop rotation, and for the proper preservation of 
manure. Then when the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Agriculture 
Society begin publication in 1808 we have available long and, one 
may say, scientific treatises on the use of all the above-mentioned 
fertilizers; on the construction of pits and shelters for manure, and 
on subsoil plowing and the proper rotation of crops. 

The beginning, however, of real progress in soil improvement in 
Pennsylvania is in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. 


WAGES AND WHEAT PRICES 


A very interesting study would be to measure farm wages at various 
periods in terms of a representative group of farm products. A little 
step in that direction is taken here by comparing wages in terms of 
wheat. There is constant difficulty, because wages and the price of 
wheat differ considerably at different seasons of the year and in various 
localities, and it is often difficult to bring together data that represent 
similar conditions. Some approximate results may, however, be 
attained. 

About 1682 wheat was running at 3s. 6d. per bushel in the neigh- 
borhood of Philadelphia. At the same time men could be hired at 
15d. per day for clearing land.” Such a wage would amount to 
approximately 22 pounds of wheat, or just a little more than a third 


© Schoepf, Travels (ed. 1911), II, 2-3. 
1 Pennsylvania Gazette, Apr. 9, 1788, p. 2. 
12Pennsylvania Magazine, 333, 336, Myers, Narratives of Pennsylvania, 252. 


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MATERIAL FOR HISTORY EARLY AGRICULTURE IN PENNSYLVANIA 289 


of a bushel. Harvest help always came higher, and by comparison 
with other periods one would say that harvest help probably brought 
a half bushel of wheat per day, or a little more, in the early days of 
William Penn’s settlement. 

Figures for 1698 run almost the same, the maximum for harvest 
help running at almost exactly 30 pounds or a half bushel of wheat. 
In that year, however, common labor is quoted as low as 18d. per day, 
or 12 pounds of wheat." 

In 1725 wheat had risen to 4s. a bushel and winter labor would 
purchase 25 pounds of wheat per day, while a mower in harvest 
could buy as much as 38 pounds." 

In 1760, with wheat at 5s. 6d., labor is quoted at 4s. to 4s. 6d. 
By this score labor could purchase from 44 to 49 pounds of wheat 
per day. This was during the French and Indian War and the 
comment is made in this year that ‘‘all prices including labor have 
risen.” It is apparent, however, that labor prices had risen faster 
than the price of wheat. 

For the year 1794 data are quite full for various parts of Pennsyl- 
vania. Wheat prices run from 7s. 6d. in Carlisle to 11s. 9d. near the 
Philadelphia market. An average price within a radius or 50 miles of 
Philadelphia is 10s. The figures on wages are somewhat uncertain 
because sometimes it is not specified whether board is included. At 
one place near Philadelphia wages are 3s. and board “and a pint of 
whiskey,” where 70 years before they were 2s. 6d. ‘‘and a pint of 
rum’”’—showing small improvement in wages or temperance. On 
the whole, however, in 1794 labor would buy from 20 to 30 pounds 
of wheat per day but in most places, it was nearer the former 
figure.'® 

Thus we may conclude that in the century following the settlement 
by William Penn labor, measured in terms of wheat, had remained 
at nearly the same level, and would usually buy a little less than half 
a bushel. The choice of wheat as a measure is further justified in 
1794 by a traveler in Berks County who states that farm laborers 
demanded payment in wheat. 

(Data since 1800 have not been gathered,but it seems evident that 
in recent times the status of farm labor, as measured by wheat, has 
improved. By the writer’s knowledge of conditions in several parts 
of eastern Pennsylvania before the Great War, and during the price 
fluctuations to 1917, a day’s labor would buy from a bushel to a 


18 Pennsylvania Magazine, XVIII, 247: Myers, Narratives of Pennsylvania, 328. 


14 Pennsylvania Magazine, V, 350. 
15 Pennsylvania Gazette, Feb. 7, 1760, p. 3; Pemberton Papers ( MSS., in Library of Historical Society 


of Pennsylvania), XIV, 71. 
16 Cazenove Journal, 28, 33, 34, 36, 59, 60, 67, 77; cf. ‘‘ Letters and Documents ” in Pennsylvania Maga- 


zine, V, 350. 
97244°—25——19 


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290 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


bushel and a quarter of wheat, or more than twice as much as in the 
colonial period.) 


THE CAZENOVE JOURNAL, 1794 


Having illustrated the function of description and travel in two 
topical studies, it may be useful to close this paper with a cross- 
section view of one work of travel to show the variety of data that 
may be found in a single document of the kind. 

One of the latest journals of early American travel to become 
available in print is the record kept by Theophile Cazenove in a 
journey across New Jersey and Pennsylvania in 1794. Cazenove was 
a Dutchman of French descent and at the time of his journey was 
general agent in America for the Holland Land Company. He was 
a keen observer, with a natural and also a professional interest in - 
farm lands and farm problems of all sorts. Consequently his journal 
is a document par excellence on the agriculture of that period and 
on the whole round of life in that country. 

Perhaps a fairly definite idea may given of the amount of material 
on various topics by stating the number of pages that contain items 
on each topic, with an occasional illustration of the type of information 
given. 

First, some of the crops may be considered. For buckwheat one 
finds items on 17 pages, including culture, prices, and production per 
acre. He gives the production per acre in 10 different localities. It 
runs from 15 to 18 bushels in northern Jersey, and from 25 to 40 
bushels in Pennsylvania. He even follows the buckwheat to the 
stage of buckwheat cakes, which, he says, the German farmers eat 
largely instead of bread because they are cheaper." 

Items on oats are found on 7 different pages; hay, 14 pages; barley, 
10 pages; corn, 20 pages; wheat, 32 pages. On the subject of wheat 
there are 7 items on culture, 10 on prices, and 17 on the amount pro- 
duced peracre. The production of wheat runs from 10 to 15 bushels 
per acre in Jersey, and from 15 to 20 bushels on the limestone soils 
of Pennsylvania. A study of Cazenove’s figures in connection with 
a soil map of the districts traversed creates a strong presumption 
for the accuracy of the journalist. 

There are four references to the ravages of the Hessian fly, the 
longest one being in the following paragraph on Chester County, Pa.: 

An acre of good valley land generally yields 15 to 20 bushels of wheat, but these 
last 2 or 3 years they have been annoyed in this district by the Hessian fly and this 


year (1794) by mildew—so they cultivate corn more extensively, and sow their fields 
in clover, because when there is not enough wheat sown, the Hessian fly attacks 


barley.'* 


Cazenove Journal, 34. 
%Cazenove Journal, 77. 


MATERIAL FOR HISTORY EARLY AGRICULTURE IN PENNSYLVANIA 29] 


On various other subjects Cazenove supplies data as follows: 
Cattle, items on 9 different pages; horses, 9 pages; prices of farm 
lands, 30 pages; use or nonuse of manure, 5 pages; transportation of 
produce, 9 pages; farm buildings, 8 pages; butter prices, 10 pages; 
size of farms, 24 pages; farm wages, 11 pages. 

The following is an example of the condensed information given 
by Cazenove for the vicinity of Lebanon, Pa.: 


In Lebanon, flour costs —, butcher’s meat 5 pence a pound, fresh pork 6 pence, 
butter 1s [hilling]; walnut wood 2 dollars a cord, oak wood 10 s [hillings] a cord. 

A workman earns 3 s. per day, and 4 dollar in summer. 

For fertilizer, lime, which is plentiful here; plow with two horses, 

[Rotation] New ground here: 

Ist year, wheat 

wheat again 

oats 

fallow, rest 

wheat 

” fallow, etc. 

Lands cultivated a longer time: 

Ist year, wheat 
2 barley 
corn, or oats 
4 ” fallow, or buckwheat 
5” if buckwheat the 4th year, then fallow. 

The cattle stay in the stables from December to April. 

Board per week in private house, 2 dollars. 

Now prices are: wheat 9 shillings per bushel, corn 5 s., barley 7-1/2 s., oats 2/6 
(the army 3/6); hay £4.10 per ton now, it being in the barn; £3.15 to 4, taken 
directly from the fields. 

({Side endorsement]: The carting of a ton of hay from here to Philadelphia is from 
£5 to£6, if the road is bad; 2 s./6 for a bushel of grain.)'* 


Of course one finds useful and plentiful data on manners and cus- 
toms. Description and travel excel particularly in this field. This 
paper may be closed by a quotation, semiinformational, semiphilo- 
sophical, showing Cazenove’s reaction to the German farmers of Penn- 
sylvania. Readers who may be of German ancestry will perhaps 
make allowance for the fact that Theophile Cazenove was of French 
descent. 


The German farmers also manufacture coarse woolen material for coats, skirts, etc.; 
and all their shirt-linens; they buy only their best clothes, for Sunday, and not 
many of these, as they are thrifty to the point of avarice; to keep seems ? to be their 
great passion; they live on potatoes; and buckwheat cakes instead of bread. They 
deny themselves everything costly; but when there is snow, they haunt the taverns. 
They are remarkably obstinate and ignorant. 

On every farm they cultivate enough flax and hemp and also raise what sheep they 
need for making their linen and cloth. They have a few gardens, at least for cab- 
bage and carrots, and they all have bee-hives. You always feel like settling in the 
country when you see the excellent ground and the charm of the country, and also 
the advantage of farming, but you lose courage when you realize the total lack of 
education of the farmers, and that it is absolutely necessary to live to yourself, if you 


Cazenove Journal, 48-49. 


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292 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


have any education, knowledge and feeling. There ought to be 5 or 6 families liv- 
ing close together in these districts; then they would be very happy, for freedom 
and abundance are obtained in a thousand places of the United States, if you are 
sensible and diligent; but for society—nescio vos. 

All these farmers talk politics; and because they read the papers, they think they 
know a great deal about the government; they think that government officers are too 
many and overpaid. One of these was complaining about the government excise 
and wanted a Jand-tax, but I pacified him with an argument for those who never 
generalize ideas—a land-tax, 1 told him, is against liberty, because every one must 
pay it if he has land, while the excise can be avoided if you want to—in order to do 
so, do not distill or drink any intoxicating drinks.” 


It might be added that Cazenove’s advice about avoiding intoxi- 
cating drinks was purely philosophical, never practical on his own 
part. Yet whatever his principles or practices on the temperance 
question, he has given us a storehouse of information on the farming 
methods and conditions of his day, and his journal is a worthy 
example of the source material for agricultural history that may be 
classified under the heading of ‘‘ Description and travel.’’ 


Cazenove Journal, 34-35. 


XVII. THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL 
SOCIETIES IN THE UNITED STATES 


By RODNEY H. TRUE 
University of Pennsylvania 


293 


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THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN THE 
UNITED STATES 


By Ropney H. True 


In the first half of the eighteenth century English agriculture began 
to reap the harvest resulting from the sowing of the preceding cen- 
tury. The steady passing of the land from the irresponsible, inflexi- 
ble, community tenure of the Middle Ages to individual ownership 
had already begun to tell in the increased effectiveness of individual 
initiative. New crops and methods from the ever efficient Netherlands 
had given the English farmer clover and turnips; America had con- 
tributed the potato. The improvement of roads had increased the 
ease of communication and thereby speeded up the propagation of 
new ideas and increased the range of individual observation. 
Crop rotation, a cardinal feature of farming operations since Roman 
times, was receiving more intelligent attention, and the fallow, in the 
old sense, was beginning to be doubted. Stock raising was recognized 
as a complement to crop growing, not an alternative. Tull had begun 
his agricultural revolution based on tillage. 

In view of the general activity of these times, some kind of united 
effort would be expected as a natural result. The Scotch apparently 
secured the priority when in 1723 the Edinburgh Society of Improvers 
in the Knowledge of Agriculture in Scotland was founded. Lord 
Stair, taking the lead, organized those interested in the problem of 
the land. This society became prominent through the publication in 
1743 of Maxwell’s Select Transactions. 

In 1731 Ireland followed Scotland, and the Dublin Society was es- 
tablished under the egis of government. Not only were communica- 
tions published, but a farm for the carrying on of experiments was 
established under the care of an official experimentalist. This ad- 
vanced step was made possible by the very considerable financial 
support from the government. 

England caught the step in 1754 when the Society for the Encour- 
agement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce was organized in Lon- 
don. The program of this society was broader than that of the 


earlier Scotch and Irish societies, but due attention was given to 
295 


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296 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


agriculture as a part of the effort. After some decades (1783) it, too, 
published its transactions. 

In point of time, the next society of this nature that has come to 
my attention was organized in 1765, in Russia, under direct orders 
of the Empress Catherine. The Free Oeconomical Society, as it was 
called, began immediately to print its treatises. A large experi- 
mental establishment was set up near St. Petersburg under the 
charge of a Russian clergyman who had studied scientific agriculture 
in England on Arthur Young’s estate. It was planned that a certain 
number of young men, later to become priests, were to be brought 
from different parts of Russia for a training that was to be carried 
by them to their future parishioners. 

In 1766 the government of France took the lead in still another 
direction, founding the celebrated veterinary school at Charenton, 
near Paris. This was later transferred to Rambouillet, where it 
became world famous. In 1786 a farm for experimental purposes was 
annexed to it and four professorships were established; two in rural 
economy, one in anatomy, and one in chemistry. (Young’s Travels 
in France, Bohn. Libr. 1912: 99.) 

The first American society for the advancement of agriculture, 
known to the writer, the New York Society for Promoting Arts, was 
already organized in 1766.'. In that year it offered premiums for 
papers or reports concerning practical work done on specific sub- 
jects to which the society wished to direct the attention of the 
farmers. 

England showed great activity in the following decades by develop- 
ing many county societies, some of special significance, as the Bath 
and West of England Society in 1777. 

Several American societies fall within this period, as the South 
Carolina Agricultural Society, 1784, the Philadelphia Society for the 
Promotion of Agriculture, 1785, the New York society, 1791, and 
others following closely. 

It is our task to study the general features of these American 
organizations, their composition, purposes and methods of operation. 
In most cases one or more prominent men of a leading city took the 
initiative and rallied around themselves a group of the well-to-do 
public-spirited citizens of their neighborhood who took a more or 
less active interest in the improvement of agricultural conditions. 

At the very beginning a cleavage line between the agricultural 
and manufacturing interests is detected and a conscientious effort 
seems to have been made in many societies to overcome this by 
attempts to demonstrate the identity of interests. These societies 
were organized to better the circumstances of the overwhelmingly 


1New York Gazette, Mar. 13, 1766: New York Mercury, Mar. 10, 1766: Weekly Post Boy, Mar. 13, 1766, 


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EARLY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN THE UNITED STATES 297 


preponderant agricultural population, but as the political strife raged 
more and more savagely during the decades following the Revolution 
traces of political discord are sometimes discoverable in the activities 
of these groups. In general, these organizations show a tendency to 
side with the liberals rather than with the conservatives. The 
antagonism between agriculture and manufactures, in spite of dili- 
gent efforts at suppression, would at times break out. While conserv- 
atives like Timothy Pickering and John Adams of Massachusetts, 
were active in the early days, the liberal wing usually took the lead 
vigorously in later decades. 

Passing now to the details of organization, it may be said that, while 
variations in the minor points of the plan were found, these young 
American societies followed pretty closely the British pattern as 
worked out in the county societies. Membership, while not exclusive, 
was guarded to the end that members secured would be able and willing 
to meet the dues, while proposals and consideration for a period 
prior to election to membership seem to have been the rule. The 
members paid into the treasury an annual fee that even in these 
days would be respectable, thus raising a fund that could be devoted 
to meeting the modest expenses of the organization and to paying 
very substantial premiums for the best papers on specific subjects, 
or for the best production of specified crops grown under indicated 
conditions. These premiums were sometimes cash sums, sometimes 
silver plate. The latter was quite the rule in the Southern States, 
but perhaps less often such in the Middle and Northern States. 

As specimen subjects for which premiums were offered by the Phila- 
delphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture for the year 1791 
the following may be cited: 


Rotation of crops, having been found capable in England of improving the soil 
instead of exhausting it, it is deemed important that the farmers of Pennsylvania 
should acquaint themselves with this mode of husbandry. Accordingly, for the best 
experiment of a five years’ course of crops a piece of silver plate of the value of $200 
is offered, inscribed with the name and the occasion. For the experiment made of 
a like course of crops next in merit, a piece of plate likewise inscribed is offered of a 
value of $100. 

The importance of the giving the best shelter to cattle and in such a way as to 
procure the greatest quantities of manure from within the farm leads the society to 
offer a gold medal for the best design of farm yard and method of managing it from 
the points of view noted. A silver medal is offered for the second best offering. 

The best method of raising hogs—gold and silver medals for best and second best 
plans, respectively. 

For the best method of recovering worn-out fields to a more healthy state, within 
the power of common farmers, without dear or far-fetched manures; but by judicious 
culture and the application of materials common to the generality of farms; founded 
on experience—a gold medal and a silver medal as before. 

For the best information, the result of actual experience, for preventing the dam- 
age to crops by insects, especially the Hessian fly [discovered but a few years 
before]—gold and silver medals. 


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For the best comparative experiments on the culture of wheat, broadcast, drilled, 
or with the seed spaced at equal distances—gold and silver medals. 

A vegetable food, easily procured and preserved, that best increases milk in cows 
and ewes in March and April founded on experiment—gold and silver medals. 

For the greatest quantity of ground, not less than one acre, well fenced, produc- 
ing locust trees growing in 1791 from seeds sown after April 5, 1785, to be of a sort 
used for posts and trunnels, and not fewer than 1,500 per acre—again medals. 

Wishing to emphasize the use of oxen instead of horses in husbandry and other serv- 
ices and the value of improved herds, the society offers a gold medal for the best 
essay based on experience in the breeding, feeding, and management of cattle for 
the purpose of rendering them most profitable for the dairy and for beef, and most 
docile and useful for the draught—a silver medal for the next best plan. 

To ascertain the powers of oxen as draught animals when hitched up as horses are 
hitched, or on some better plan if there is such, when used on plough or loaded car- 
riage—medals are offered; methods and expense of shoeing, harnessing, etc. to be 
described. 


A footnote refers to the common use of oxen in New England, 
something apparently rare in Pennsylvania. 
To find the best method of recovering old gullied fields to a hearty state, or when 


damaged beyond remedy, how best to use them, as for tree planting—medals. 
For the best cheese, not less than 500 pounds—gold medal; not less than 250 


pounds—silver medal. 

The society, believing that the culture of hemp on some of the low rich lands in 
the neighborhood of this city may be attempted with advantage, offers a gold medal 
for the greatest quantity of hemp, not Jess than 3 tons, grown within 10 miles of Phil- 
adelphia. For second greatest quantity, a silver medal. 

A final provision allows the successful candidates for prizes to 
receive either plate or medal, or their cash equivalent. 

The society awarded prizes on the basis of written reports properly 
certified by competent witnesses. The pithy recommendation ‘That 
reasoning be not mixed with the facts’? accompanies the statement 
of conditions of competition. It will be noted that premiums were 
not offered for definite itemized products, but rather for the best solu- 
tions of problems of general significance. 

Here we have the general type illustrated. Variations in minor 
particulars are found among the different societies, as the problems 
to be solved varied with each region concerned. 

The leaders of these early American societies seem to have realized 
that in holding meetings and listening to reports on experiments they 
were but half accomplishing their object. Greater numbers must 
be reached through some sort of printed medium. For some years 
they seem to have used the newspapers, almanacs, and other general 
periodical literature open to them. In time, several of the stronger 
organizations, following the conspicuous lead of the Bath and West of 
England, Highland, Dublin, and ether Old World societies, issued vol- 
umes of memoirs or transactions, in which selected papers were 
printed for their membership and indirectly for a wider circle of read- 
ers. Among the societies doing so, the following may be cited as 


EARLY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN THE UNITED STATES 299 


examples: South Carolina Agricultural Society (1785); New York 
Society for Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures (1792); Massachu- 
setts Society for Promoting Agriculture (1796).? 

None of the American societies, so far as known, was able to imitate 
Dublin and the Oeconomical Society of Russia in establishing exper- 
imental farms. Institutions founded on the voluntary contributions 
of a general membership could hardly have expected to undertake an 
enterprise requiring so large and steady a support. 

However, in 1794 a committee of the Philadelphia Society, of which 
John Beal Bordley, colonial judge of the Admiralty at Annapolis, Md., 
and in his later years a resident of Philadelphia, acted as chairman, 
petitioned the State legislature to incorporate a State Society of Agri- 
culture in Pennsylvania, which, among other objects, would establish 
‘“‘pattern farms” in different and convenient parts of the State in 
charge of competent men. Incidentally this same committee urged 
that books presenting sound principles and methods of farming 
be used in the county schools, the masters being enjoined to com- 
bine the teaching of agriculture with the other subjects of ed- 
ucation.’ The national farm established by the French government 
in 1783 was cited as an example of such a pattern farm.‘ The actual 
establishment of such pattern farms for the general diffusion of 
information was not accomplished, I believe, in the early days in 
Pennsylvania or in any other State. 

Although the giving of agricultural instruction, carried on very 
effectively in a private way by Arthur Young, was urged by this 
committee of the Philadelphia society, the formal teaching of agri- 
culture does not seem to have passed beyond the point of animated 
discussion even in that State. This idea, however, was generally 
discussed about this time by many leaders of American thought, 
Washington and Jefferson among the number. 

The general model on which these early agricultural societies was 
based is to be found in the learned societies of the times. The 
American Philosophical Society, organized in 1743 at Philadelphia, 
published many articles on agricultural subjects long before this 
branch of interest segregated itself. Hence it was natural that the 
early agricultural societies should preserve somewhat of the aristo- 
cratic character of their prototypes and, like them, should fail to reach 
the men who actually held the plow. How to popularize agricultural 
improvement and to bring not only the idea but concrete illustrations 
of it to the men on the land was a problem for the agricultural leaders 
tosolve. One result of the effort to do this took the form of agricultural 
exhibitions in which the farmers themselves competed for premiums 


§Phil. Soc. Prom. Agri. 4: xx. 
3 Mem. Phila. Soc. Prom. Agri., 1: xxi. 
4Ibid., 1: xxv. 


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offered for specified products. This sort of extension work, in which 
the principles advocated by advanced thinkers were given the form of 
more and better grains, fruits, and animals, marked the transition of 
these societies from the Old World aristocratic type of learned organ- 
ization to a much larger democratic institution that dealt much ‘less 
with ideas and much more with everyday realities. 

This movement in America ran roughly parallel with a like devel- 
opment in the mother country. Probably the germ of the new thing 
was to be found in the occasional popular gatherings on the premises 
of Coke of Holkham, in Norfolk, who from 1778 to 1821 annually 
gathered his farmers together for consultation on agricultural matters 
and to study on his highly improved lands the results of better meth- 
ods. All were welcome from the smallest tenant farmer to His Royal 
Highness the Duke of Sussex.’ The exhibition of horses, pigs, and 
implements of husbandry was followed by the shearing of sheep. 
Fleeces were weighed and different types of sheep were killed and 
their mutton value determined. As the climax of the occasion, a 
grand dinner was served, with toasts drunk in the orthodox manner 
and with the customary speeches. 

This type of demonstration work was imitated in America by 
several leading citizens. George Washington Parke Custis began his 
series of annual sheep shearings in 1802 at Arlington, across the 
Potomac from Washington.* Here the model set by Coke was as 
closely followed as circumstances would permit.’ 

Col. David Humphreys, formerly minister to Spain, and Robert 
R. Livingstone at a little later date (1810) followed the example of 
Coke and Somerville and invited gatherings to their premises where 
sheep were sheared, speeches made, and toasts drunk in good English 
style.8 The popularity of these gatherings and their effectiveness as a 
means of arousing and broadening interest in better agriculture was 
apparently promptly recognized by the agricultural societies. Many 
soon organized exhibitions at which not only were sheep sheared 
but the greater variety of subjects of interest to a farming popula- 
tion was recognized in a program of much broader scope. 

The question of priority in holding agricultural exhibitions brings 
to view one of the most interesting men of those days in the person 
of Elkanah Watson, a man of wide public experience who was much 
interested in the improvement of agricultural conditions. In the 
autumn of 1807 Watson determined to make the arrival of two merino 
sheep that he had just bought a matter of general interest to the 


5 Curtler, Short History of English Agriculture, 227. For a lively account of the three days’ meeting 
in autumn of 1820, see American Farmer, 2: 217. 

6 Connor, Brief History of the Sheep Industry in the United States, An. Rpt. Am. Hist. Assoc. 1918, I: 99. 

7Bryan, W. B., A History of the National Capital, I: 597; also Lossing, Benson, J., The American 
Centenary, 1876: 107. 

8 Agr. Museum 1: 35, 4, 1810. 


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EARLY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN THE UNITED STATES 301 


farmers of Pittsfield, Berkshire County, Mass., where he was then 
living. He gave notice that he would exhibit these animals under 
the great elm tree in the public square. He took this occasion to 
make an enthusiastic speech in the interest of improved stock. An 
agricultural society was duly chartered in 1810, and in the fall of 
1811 held a formal exhibition with an award of about $70 to the 
most meritorious animals. Other interests than those of livestock 
were not recognized on account of a lack of funds. Anyone who 
enjoys a bit of enthusiastic writing should read Watson’s account of 
his exhibition.® 

It seems clear that unless Watson’s speech to the Berkshire farmers 
over his two merinos, under the great elm in Pittsfield square, con- 
stituted an agricultural exhibition in the accepted sense, Massachu- 
setts was anticipated one year by the District of Columbia. Here, 
on the outskirts of Georgetown, on May 16, 1810, an exhibition was 
held about which there could be little doubt. Not two sheep and an 
enthusiastic orator only, but a list of premiums was awarded for 
sheep to the amount of $240; for domestic manufactures, $260; ‘for 
shearing a sheep in the neatest, safest and most expeditious manner” 
$15 awarded to a resident of the city of Washington. Apparently 
the palm for priority goes to the District of Columbia.’ 

It is to be noted that in both exhibitions the only animals recog- 
nized were sheep. To offset this may be cited another activity of the 
exhibition type in which cattle were the chief object of interest. Cat- 
tle shows were held in England from 1802 onward under the patronage 
of Lord Somerville.' The Smithfield cattle show, begun in 1793, 
was an effort on a wider basis." In America, too, cattle had their 
own special appreciation, and that mainly in the Northern and Cen- 
tral States. Here, about the exhibits of fat cattle grouped a variety 
of features similar to that seen at the southern sheep shearings. In 
most cases both North and South, as in the District of Columbia, 
domestic manufactures were given special emphasis. 

It will be seen that in these exhibitions, or shows, or shearings, the 
different elements of the rural life of the times were gradually being 
brought together. The problem of agricultural implements, even in 
the early days, appealed to Americans. Jared Eliot, the author of 
our first American work on agriculture, with the assistance of Pres- 
ident Clapp of Yale College, devised a drill plow based on the rather 
clumsy type developed before 1735 by Tullin England. Eliot sent one 
of these machines to William Logan in Philadelphia in 1755. Ameri- 
cans, thrown on their own resources in these matters, were forced to 


®Watson, Men and Times of the Revolution : 368. 
10 Agri. Museum, 1:11, 1810. 

Agri. Museum, 1: 49, 1810. 

Curtler: 218. 


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802 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


make tools to fit their needs. The plow had always been an object of 
special difficulty because, until Jefferson’ s time, each tool was a thing 
by itself, made of wood on a plan favored by the individual plow- 
right and finished off with sundry iron parts furnished by the black- 
smith. No two plows were exactly alike. A favorite implement 
was kept as long as possible, then duplicated as nearly as might be. 

This condition of affairs, in respect to this most important imple- 
ment and observations, made on the almost Neolithic plows seen at 
work in 1795 by Jefferson while touring in Lorraine led that states- 
man to seek some principle of construction that might standardize 
plows on a rational basis. He worked on this problem until by 1793 
he was able to formulate his principles in terms of mathematics, and 
to have plows made on his design.'* They were used on his Virginia 
estates and worked admirably. A discussion of the problem with 
his solution was presented to the American Philosophical Society in 
Philadelphia in 1798. He used a spring dynamometer to ascertain 
the actual draft of plows of different designs. 

It will be readily understood from this explanation how alive the 
problem of the plow was a decade or so later in the days of these 
cattle shows, sheep shearings, and agricultural exhibitions. The 
plowing match was seen as a regular feature on most of these 
occasions. Sometimes contests were held between horses and oxen. 
Generally plowmakers from several places would enter their handi- 
work, and, following the example of the patron of the arts and 
sciences from Monticello, put their products to the strict tests of the 
dynamometer. 

For some years exhibitions of the types described went under a 
variety of names—sheep shearings, cattle shows, agricultural exhi- 
bitions. After a time another name came to be associated with these, 
namely—the fair. 

Fairs had been established institutions in the Old World from 
relatively remote times, coming into existence with the improvement 
of roads and means of conveyance. About 1600, horse fairs were 
held at Ripon, Harborow, Wolf Pit, and other places in England." 
The great market for hops and wool was found at the Sturbridge 
Fair, ‘* the great market for sheep at the Wayhill Fair in 1719. In 
the day of Coke, St. Faith’s Fair near Norwich was a central point 
for the sale of cattle, some even coming from Scotland to be fattened 
for the London market.” 


18 Randall, Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc., 22: 67, 1862. 
“Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., 4: 313-322, 1799. 


% Curtler: 105. 

Ibid., 171. 

tIbid., 172. 

% Prothero, English Farming, Past and Present, 218. 


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EARLY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN THE UNITED STATES 308 


In America, fairs for the exhibition and sale of livestock, home man- 
ufactures, and produce were well known at a relatively early date. A 
Virginia act of 1742 sanctioned the holding of semiannual fairs in 
Alexandria in the spring and fall. In Maryland the act laying out 
the town of Georgetown in 1751 gave the same authority to this place. 
The Virginia enactment indicated that these fairs should afford an 
opportunity for ‘‘ the sale and vending of all manner of cattle, victuals, 
provisions, goods, wares, and merchandises.”’'® After the city of 
Washington had begun to take shape in 1804, the city council 
authorized the holding of fairs ‘‘for the sale of all kinds of cattle, 
goods, wares, and merchandise”’ in May and November of each year. 
In addition to the opportunities for selling merchandise, premiums 
were offered for the best specimens of the various kinds of livestock 
sold during the fair. Here, along with the exchange feature, the 
improvement motive had begun to develop before the agricultural 
societies had adopted it as an extension feature of their more formal 
and strictly intellectual proceedings. 

Even earlier, however, than Virginia and Maryland, Carolina had 
been holding fairs in the vicinity of Charleston. The South Carolina 
Gazette of May 5, 1733, states that ‘‘on Tuesday next Strawberry 
Fair will begin as usual.’’ In the number of September 28, 1734, 
occurs the notice of the fair as an annual event at Strawberry. That 
real estate, as well as produce and livestock, was also sold at this fair 
is indicated by a notice in the Gazette of the same date that two 
“Town lotts in Childsberry alias the Strawberry” would “be sold 
for ready money to the highest bidder at publick Out-Cry,” at the 
next Strawberry Fair in the month of October. 

The Strawberry Fair seems to have been first authorized by an 
act of 1723, establishing it at Childsberry town in St. John’s Parish, 
in Berkeley County. Public fairs were to be held ‘‘at least twice in 
every year for exposing for sale horses, cattle, and merchandise.” 
“Anything may be brought there by anybody for sale or barter at 
such times, hours and seasons as directors or rulers at the Fairs at 
the time may appoint.’’ A further most interesting provision fol- 
lows: ‘‘Fairs shall be held with a Court of Pipowder with liberties 
and customs of Fairs such as are holden in South Britain or England.” 
The duties of the rulers of the fair appointed by the governor of the 
province in holding court of pipowder are defined. The further pro- 
vision is made that ‘‘during Fair no one there shall be liable to ar- 
rest by virtue of any process except treason, felony or other capital 
crime, or breach of the peace.” 

An act of March 16, 1783, is somewhat more explicit concerning 
this court. The establishment of a ‘‘court of pipowder” is provided 


Bryan, History of National Capital, I: 60, 1914. 


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for. A majority of the inhabitants of the town were authorized to 
elect a person or persons as directors or rulers of the fair, which di- 
rectors or rulers were authorized to hold a ‘‘court of pipowders to- 
gether with all liberty and free customs to such appertaining, and 
that they and every one of them may have and hold there, at their 
respective courts, from day to day and hour to hour from time to 
time upon all occasions plaints and please of a court of pipowders, 
together with all summons, attachments, arrests, issues, fines, redemp- 
tions and commodities.”’ 

The court of pipowder was derived immediately from early English 
usage, as is indicated in the language of the act. The name, ‘the 
court of dusty feet,’’ as well as this form of temporary petty tribunal, 
came from France, where at maritime points this international emer- 
gency court grew up at the fairs held in the Middle Ages. Such 
was apparently the remote origin of the temporary courts, with their 
constables, having limited powers of action, named for the duration 
of the fair.”° 

We get traces of this element in the machinery of agricultural fairs 
from the beginnings of these institutions down to the present time. 

Such was the early origin and character of the fairs that furnished 
a favorable stock onto which the post-revolutionary agricultural so- 
cieties grafted their extension operations. Already established as 
occasions that brought many people together, and therefore popular 
as social events in days when the social side of farm life had 
little chance, these societies needed only to guide this activity into 
the desired channels. By offering premiums for individual ani- 
mals or articles of definite kinds, the society officers directed the 
attention of the community toward such objects as seemed to them 
to be of major importance. By varying the objects for which premi- 
ums were offered, or by regulating the sums offered, it was possible 
to bring new ideas to the front and to point out new needs to be 
met. Thus the premium lists of any society of long life throw a 
very strong light on farming conditions as they existed in the begin- 
ning and as they changed with time. Thus, also, the fairs, originally, 
as the name suggests, places of purchase and barter, changed their 
character as the propaganda spirit took possession of them. They 
retained, and retain to this day, the name “fair,” but the original 
element gradually vanished before the improving spirit of the agri- 
cultural societies that took charge of them. 

Another institution that originated independently of the agricul- 
tural fairs and finally gravitated to them was the horse race. From 
very early times horse racing had been a favorite form of amusement, 
and the elements of popularity were recognized by the early agricul- 


2” Holdsworth, The Law Merchant, Select Essays in Anglo-American Legal History, vol. 1, also Selden 
Society, Select Cases of Law Merchant, 1270-1638, vol.1. Introduction, 


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EARLY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN THE UNITED STATES 305 


tural organizers as likely to furnish a means of advancing agriculture. 
Horses were the chief means of travel for all parts of the country 
from early times, and from saddle use to racing was a short step. 
The breeding of saddle horses was carried on in the latter half of the 
seventeenth century, in Rhode Island”, among other places. This 
was the possible source of saddle horses advertised for sale in Charles- 
ton, S.C., at a somewhat later date. Edward Vanvelsen, in the South 
Carolina Gazette of September 14, 1734, offered for sale “‘Two Rhode 
Island Stallions, Natural Pacers,’’ both 15 hands high. On January 
4, 1735, Nathaniel Potter offered for sale “‘at his store at Mr. William 
Pinckney’s several Rhode Island pacing horses,’’ Molasses, Cyder 
Potatoes, ete. 

At an early date horse racing was already a public institution in 
Charleston. A race having for a prize a saddle valued at 20 pounds 
was advertised as an attraction at a fair held in May, 1737, at Ashley 
Ferry.” 

Horse racing began in Georgetown, Md., as early as 1769, and in 
the spring of 1797 a great race of 4-mile heats was run in Washington, 
the chief contestants being horses owned by Charles Ridgeley of 
Maryland and Colonel Tayloe of Virginia. A great interstate rivalry 
made this race one long remembered.” 

Although racing was thus already established in the area included 
in the District of Columbia years before the agricultural exhibition 
held in Georgetown in 1810, the races were not associated with it. 
Perhaps the agricultural exhibition was still too intent on the serious 
business for which it was organized to seek the aid of a sport then, as 
now, not without its shady side. Indeed, it seems to have been 
decades later before the horse race was drawn into the synthesis, and 
then often with a sort of half apology. 

From what I have outlined here, the following conclusions may 
be gathered: 

With the general awakening to the importance of agricultural 
improvement in the early seventeen hundreds, organizations in- 
tended to forward this movement were formed both in Europe and in 
America. Membership was limited in number, and the scientific and 
philosophical organizations of the time formed the prototype. Efforts 
to widen the circle of influence included the publishing of memoirs 
and transactions, and the offering of premiums forsolutions to problems. 
A further widening was sought by applying the demonstration princi- 
ple, the result being exhibits at which products were put in competi- 


21 Weeden, Social and Economic History of New England; 333. 
22 South Carolina Gazette, Apr. 16, 1737. 
Bryan, History of National Capital, 1: 304. 


97244—25 20 


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806 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


tion for prizes. Other features of popular interest, agricultural in na- 
ture, gradually gathered about this exhibit to build up an institution 
that had a very broad appeal, and through its effect on great numbers 
of farmers hastened very greatly the dissemination of new information, 
awakened the spirit of improvement and made concrete the work of 
intellectual leaders. 

As effort centered more and more on the application of principles 
to practice the intellectual level of these societies declined. However, 
they achieved democracy and thereby accomphshed a great work. 


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XVIII. HISTORY OF THE RANCH CATTLE INDUSTRY IN 
OKLAHOMA 


By EDWARD EVERETT DALE 


University of Oklahoma 


307 


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HISTORY OF THE RANCH CATTLE INDUSTRY IN OKLAHOMA. 


Epwarp Everett DALE 


This paper deals with that period of time from the beginning of 
ranching in Oklahoma upon a large scale to statehood in 1907—the 
period of the ranch cattle industry. The subject is treated from an 
historical rather than an economic viewpoint, omitting so far as pos- 
sible statistics and questions of profit and loss in order to devote 
more space to governmental relations and the influence of cattle 
raising in Oklahoma upon the development of the West and upon the 
country as a whole. 

It has seemed well to limit the subject in this way, because cattle 
raising in Oklahoma, during the period named, was far different from 
that industry in any other State of the Union and its peculiar fea- 
tures had a powerful and far-reaching influence. Broadly speaking, 
the history of the ranch cattle industry in Oklahoma is merely a part 
of the history of a much larger movement—that of the conquest of 
the American wilderness. This movement has been characterized 
by the appearance of various successive stages of society, that of the 
hunter, the herder, and the pioneer farmer. The significant thing is 
that Oklahoma has passed through all of these stages within a single 
generation, owing to the fact that Oklahoma was a region of retarded 
development, since it was an Indian territory in which white settle- 
ment was for a long time forbidden. 

Cattle ranching as a frontier pursuit has existed in America since 
early colonial days. Once agricultural settlement was firmly planted 
along the Atlantic seaboard and began its march westward across 
the continent, pushing before it the broken fragments of various 
Indian tribes, there was always to be found along its western edge 
a comparatively narrow rim or border of pastoral life. For a century 
and more it was there, pushed on steadily west as agricultural settle- 
ment advanced, a sort of ‘‘twilight zone” with the light of civiliza- 
tion behind it and the darkness of savagery before. It is one of the 
most remarkable things in American economic history, however, that 
immediately after the Civil War this comparatively narrow belt of 
pastoral life, hitherto fairly constant in width and area, suddenly 
shot out into the wilderness and spread with remarkable rapidity 

309 


310 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


until it covered a region larger than all that part of the United States 
east of the Mississippi devoted to agriculture.' 

Among the factors chiefly responsible for this sudden and enormous 
expansion of the industry were theslaughter of the buffalo, thus leaving 
vast areas of excellent pasture lands entirely without animals to con- 
sume the grass; and the gathering up of the Plains tribes of Indians and 
the placing of them upon reservations in Oklahoma and elsewhere.? 

The last was somewhat dependent upon the former. It was vir- 
tually impossible to keep the roving tribes of the Plains upon reser- 
vations as long as there were plenty of buffalo to be found, a poten- 
tial supply of food, clothing, and shelter. But by 1880 the buffalo 
had almost entirely disappeared and after that date it was compara- 
tively easy to keep the Indians upon reservations where they were 
fed by the Government of the United States.? Thus the destruction 
of the buffalo herds not only opened up a vast pastoral region by 
leaving the grass formerly consumed by these animals for cattle, but 
it also made it possible for the ranchmen to occupy that region with 
some degree of safety, since the Indians could then be controlled 
and kept upon their own lands. 

Even so, it would have been impossible for the ranching industry 
to have grown to such great proportions so rapidly, because enough 
animals could not have been found to stock these enormous new 
ranges, had there not existed in the Southwest a great reservoir 
from which they might be drawn—the State of Texas. That Com- 
monwealth, with an area greater than the combined areas of the 
thirteen original States, was an ideal region for cattle raising. Climate, 
soil, and the land system all combined to make this true. The 
winters were usually mild so that cattle kept fat upon the open 
range throughout the year; the soil usually produced a good quality of 
grass, while the system inherited from Spain of granting out lands 
in large tracts had made Texas a region of large landed proprietors, 
most of whom had herds of cattle.‘ 

During the four years of the Civil War Texas remained the least 
touched of any Southern State by that struggle. While the armies 
of Sherman were laying waste a broad strip through Georgia and the 
Carolinas, while the border States were being devastated by the troops 
of both sides, and while the fields of the Cotton Kingdom were lying 


1 Nimmo gives the area devoted to the range cattle industry in 1885 as 1,350,000 square miles; a region 
larger than the combined areas of Great Britain, Ireland, France, Germany, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, 
Austria (as it then was), Italy, Spain, Portugal, and one-fifth of Russia in Europe. See Nimmo, Range 
and Ranch Cattle Traffic of the U.S., p. 1. 

2 Some 20 tribes of Plains Indians were brought to western Oklahoma and located upon reserva- 
tions there between 1866 and 1885. 

3 The disappearence of the buffalo may be traced in the reports of the Indian agents for the west- 
ern tribes of Oklahoma. See Reports of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1876, pp. 46-49; ibid, 1879, p. 65. 

4 The census of 1860, Volume on agriculture, p. 148, gives the total number of cattle in Texas at 
that time as 3,534,768. Census figures are most unreliable, however, when applied to an industry of 
this nature, and those of that particular census are especially so. 


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HISTORY OF THE RANCH CATTLE INDUSTRY IN OKLAHOMA 811 


fallow for want of laborers to till them, the cattle herds of Texas 
remained undisturbed and were increasing rapidly under the favor- 
able conditions surrounding them. The result was that when the 
Texas soldiers returned to their homes at the close of the war they 
found their ranges overflowing with fine fat cattle for which they had 
no market though cattle and beef were selling at high prices in the 
North.§ 

Out of this condition grew the so-called “ northern drive.” Early 
in 1866 many Texas ranchmen gathered up herds of fat steers and 
drove them northward in an effort to reach market. Finding it al- 
most impossible to drive cattle through the settled regions that must 
be traversed in order to reach Kansas City or St. Louis, they soon 
began to keep to the west of all settlements and bring their herds to 
shipping points on the railroads building westward through Kansas 
and Nebraska, which came to be known as “‘ cow towns.” Here the 
cattle were loaded on cars and shipped to the northern or eastern 
markets. 

It is estimated that between five and six million head of cattle 
were driven north from Texas during the 18 years following the Civil 
War, and it seems probable that this estimate is too low.’ The fat 
animals were shipped to the packing centers to be slaughtered; others 
were sent into the corn belt where they were fed corn for from 60 to 
120 days before being consigned to the packers. Also, it was not 
long until the possibilities of the northern ranges were discovered, 
with the result that the drive to Abilene, Wichita, or Dodge City 
frequently became but the first part of a longer drive to Dakota, 
Montana, or Wyoming. It was found that both the northern and 
southern plains had their advantages. Texas, because of the low 
altitude and warm climate, remained the great breeding ground, while 
the northern plains became the great feeding ground; many men held 
ranges in both regions. 

As time went on the ranch cattle industry grew in popularity. 
Ranching became almost a fad. Young college men from the East, 
as the late Theodore Roosevelt, to quote a conspicuous example, came 
West and engaged in the business. Foreign capitalists invested heav- 
ily in ranching ventures, and a number of these, such as Baron 
Richthofen and the Marquis of Mores, came over from Europe and 
gave their personal attention to the business. A literature of the 
cattle country came into existence. Large corporations were formed, 


5 In 1866 round steak was retailing in New York at 20 to 25 cents a pound, sirloin at 25 to 35, and rib 
roast at 28 to 30 cents ( New York Tribune, June 23, 1866 ). On the live stock market of eastern cities 
cattle were quoted at $5 to $10 per hundredweight the last-named price being refused on the Albany 
market Dec. 21, 1866, for a choice consignment of Illinois steers ( New York Times, Dec. 22, 1866 ). 

¢See Joseph G. McCoy, Historic Sketches of the Texas Cattle Trade, fora contemporary account of the 
development of the northern drive. 

7Nimmo, Range and Rasch Cattle Traffic, p. 28. 


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812 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


in many of which prominent State and national officials held stock. 
Within 10 years after the close of the Civil War the industry of herd- 
ing had spread over the entire Plains region and extended from the 
edge of the agricultural settlements on the east to the Rocky Moun- 
tains and even beyond. 

In the very center of this great ‘“‘cow country” lay the Indian 
Territory, later to become the State of Oklahoma, a region larger 
than all New England, yet with a population of hardly more than 
a hundred thousand souls. Obviously it was a ‘‘strategic region,” 
since it lay between the breeding grounds of Texas and both the 
markets and feeding grounds of the North, and in consequence nearly 
all of the cattle trails leading north crossed it. It was also interest- 
ing in itself. The eastern half was occupied by the Five Civilized 
Tribes of Indians who owned their lands in common and governed 
themselves almost as though they were five independent republics. 
These people, through contact with the whites in their old home east 
of the Mississippi, had passed from the hunting to the pastoral stage 
of society, but at this point had been driven westward to Oklahoma. 
Here they had continued the herding industry begun in the old 
home, but their herds were destroyed by the Civil War and their 
country so devastated that after that struggle they never reached the 
point in cattle raising that they had previously attained. The west- 
ern half of the Indian Territory, with an area as great as that of 
Ohio, had less than 20,000 half savage blanket Indians living upon 
large reservations of which they made little use, while certain exten- 
sive areas such as Greer County, Old Oklahoma, and the Cherokee 
Outlet had no Indian inhabitants at all.® , 

White settlement was forbidden in this territory and, as an agri- 
cultural population slowly crept westward engulfing it, Oklahoma 
remained an attractive but little inhabited island of wilderness in the 
midst of swirling currents of civilization. It was as though a dike 
had been erected about the Indian country by governmental decree, 
a dike impervious to the waves of settlement that beat against it. 


®The Indians located in Oklahoma were as follows: 

Osage, 1872, 17 Stats. 228. 

Kaw, 1872, 17 Stats. 228. 

Ponca Sioux, 1877, 21 Stats. 422. 

Pawnee, 1876, 19 Stats. 28. 

Otoe and Missouria, 1882, 21 Stats. 380. 

Tonkawa, formerly Nez Perce Reservation, 1884, 20 Stats. 63. 

Sac and Fox, 1867, 15 Stats. 495. 

Iowa Executive order, 1883, Kappler, Indian Laws and Treaties, Vol. I, 843. 

Kickapoo, Executive order, 1883, ibid. 844. 

Potawatomi, 1867, 15 Stats. 591. 

Cheyenne-Arapaho, 1869, Executive order, Kappler, Vol. I, 839. 

Comanche-Kiowa-Apache, 1867, 15 Stats. 581. 

The Wichita and Caddo were given their reservation in 1872 by unratified agreement, but had been liv- 
ing there for a long time before; they themselvcs said for two centuries. 


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HISTORY OF THE RANCH CATTLE INDUSTRY IN OKLAHOMA 818 


Through this dike, however, the range-cattle industry at last began 
to flow. An industry, more fluid in its nature than agriculture, at 
last began to trickle through a barrier that had proved impenetrable 
to white settlement in the ordinary sense of the term. 

This was not true at first. As long as there was abundant range 
elsewhere, the cattlemen who occasionally drove herds up the trails 
leading across Oklahoma did not view the permanent occupation of 
that region with much favor. True, the range and climate were 
excellent. Lying between the breeding grounds of Texas and the 
feeding grounds of the northern plains, Oklahoma had most of the 
advantages of both and few of the disadvantages of either. The cli- 
mate was mild enough to enable cattle to live through the winter upon 
the open range without serious loss, and yet cool and bracing enough 
so that the animals grew larger and became fatter than they did in 
the extreme Southwest. The water supply was fairly abundant and 
the pasturage of the best. Yet there were disadvantages, too. The 
ever hungry Indians would be certain to prove a constant source of 
anxiety and of loss, while the Department of the Interior refused to 
give leases of Indian land for grazing purposes and showed an earnest 
determination to keep the ranchmen out. Even if it were possible 
to occupy ranges there by stealth, or with the connivance of Indian 
agents and their employees, the ranchmen would be in a region 
entirely without the protection of the law, and so would have 
little redress when their herds were preyed upon by the bar- 
baric tribes that occupied these reservations, or by white thieves and 
outlaws. In consequence it was some time before there was any 
real attempt at permanent occupation of pasture lands in Oklahoma 
by the ranchmen. 

As this great stream of Texas cattle continued to flow north and 
spread itself over the plains, attractive ranges became increasingly 
scarce. Cattle companies were paying large dividends, as much as 
25 to 35 per cent a year in some cases,’ and such profits naturally caused 
the rapid extension of the industry. Beef contractors were permitted 
to bring herds into Oklahoma and hold them near the agencies for issue 
to the Indians; ranchmen living along the border in adjoining States 
permitted their cattle to drift across the line; others, driving herds 
on the trails across Oklahoma, began in some cases to linger for 
several weeks or months during the drive, and at last some of these 
men began to contemplate a permanent occupation of these rich pas- 
ture lands. 

The first attempts met with little success. The Department of the 
Interior refused to approve leases or grazing permits, insisting that 
under the existing law it had no right to do so and called upon the 


®L. A. Allen, Our Cattle Industry Past and Present, pp. 6-7. 


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814 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


War Department to expel all intruders. The latter made a half- 
hearted attempt to do this, but soon desisted, claiming it was impos- 
sible, and urged the Department of the Interior to permit grazing upon 
the western reservations in consideration of a reasonable payment for 
that privilege.!. The Department of the Interior refused, and the 
result was an unseemly altercation between the two departments. 

In the meantime more and more cattle were brought upon the 
Indian reservations. Some of the Indian agents, finding themselves 
confronted with a shortage of food for their charges, owing to inad- 
equate appropriations, sought to make up the deficiency by granting 
to the ranchmen permission to pasture cattle upon Indian lands in 
exchange for beef." 

In the spring of 1883, the agent for the Cheyenne-Arapaho, John 
D. Miles, called the Indians together in council and secured the con- 
sent of the greater part of them to lease nearly all their reservation 
to seven cattlemen for a period of 10 years at a yearly rental of 
two cents anacre. The total amount of land leased was over 3,000,000 
acres, for which the Indians were to receive $62,000 a year." 

These leases were sent to Washington for approval by the Depart- 
ment of the Interior, accompanied by a letter from Agent Miles de- 
scribing in glowing terms the benefits that were certain to accrue to 
the Indians.* This brought the matter of grazing cattle upon Indian 
lands to a direct issue, since the interests involved were of such 
magnitude as to demand attention. The result was that the Secre- 
tary of the Interior wrote to Mr. Edward Fenlon, one of the lessees, 
a letter knowm as the ‘‘ Fenlon letter,” laying down the policy which 
the department had determined to pursue. In this letter the Secre- 
tary said in part: 

While the department will not recognize the agreement or lease you mention, nor 
any other of like character, to the extent of approving the same, nor to the extent 
of assuming to settle controversies that may arise between the different parties 
holding such agreements, yet the department will endeavor to see that parties having 
no agreement are not allowed to interfere with those who have. Whenever there 
shall be just cause for dissatisfaction on the part of the Indians, or when it shall 
appear that improper persons, under the cover of such lease or agreement, are allowed 
in the Territory by parties holding such agreement, or for any reason the department 
shall consider it desirable for the public interest to do so, it will exercise its right 
of supervision to the extent of removing all occupants from the Territory without 
reference to such lease or agreement, on such notice as shall be right and proper 
under the circumstances under which the parties have entered the Territory and 


10See Price to Lewis, Sen. Ex. Doc. 54, 48th Cong., Ist sess., Vol. IV, p. 54 (Oct. 20, 1881). Also Price to 
Sec. of Int. Jan. 28, 1882, ibid., p. 57, and Kirkwood to Sec. of War, Feb. 1 1882, ibid., p. 58. 

Sheridan to Lincoln, Mar. 6, 1882, ibid., p. 60. 

12 Report of Com. of Indian Affs., 1882, p. 68. 

8 See inclosure of Miles to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Apr. 6, 1883. Sen. Kx. Doc. 54, 48th Cong., 
1st sess., Vol. IV, p. 92. 

1#Miles to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Apr. 6, 1883. Sen. Ex. Doc. 17, 48th Cong., 2d sess., Vol. I, 
p. 92. 


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HISTORY OF THE RANCH CATTLE INDUSTRY IN OKLAHOMA 815 


have complied with the terms of the agreement and instructions of the department. 
All parties accepting such agreements should accept the same subject to all conditions 
herein, and subject to any future action of Congress and this department as herein 
stated in relation to occupants of such Territory. Instructions will be issued to the 
agents in accordance with this letter.'® 

Such a policy was little short of absurd. It invited ranchmen to 
enter the Indian Territory and intrigue with savage tribesmen. It 
placed a premium upon bribery and corruption and made of every 
agency employee a person to be flattered, cajoled, and, if possible, 
bribed by men with large interests at stake. Also, it could not be 
enforced. Men who had no agreements approved by the agent, but 
who were friendly with certain small bands of Indians, refused to 
remove, and their Indian friends, who were receiving more money 
from these ranchmen than their share of the lease money would 
amount to, refused to ratify the agreement made by their chiefs, and 
cut the fences and killed the cattle of the “approved lessees.” The 
latter appealed to the agent for protection, demanding that men 
without leases be excluded; but the War Department, when called 
upon for troops, refused to furnish them on the ground that leases 
had not been approved by the Department of the Interior."* 

Conditions on the Cheyenne-Arapaho reservation steadily grew 
worse. Agent Miles resigned and the new agent was unequal to the 
task imposed upon him. The Indians got keyond control, partly as 
a result of interference with them by rival groups of cattlemen, and 
a general outbreak was threatened.” The result was that General 
Sheridan was sent to this reservation with all available troops in the 
West to quiet the trouble, and the President at last ordered all cattle 
to be removed from the reservation within 40 days.’* The number 
of cattle on the reservation was estimated at 210,000 head, but was 
possibly much larger. By December, 1885, all had been removed, 
but range was scarce elsewhere and the winter a severe one. Asa 
result, the losses of cattle by starvation and freezing were frightful 
throughout the Southwest in this winter of 1885-6, and these losses 
were no doubt in part due to the placing of these Oklahoma cattle 
upon the already overstocked ranges of the bordering States.” 

In the meantine the Cherokee Outlet was also the field of great 
ranching operations. That region had been given to the Cherokees, 
and a patent issued to them for it a few years after their removal; 
but in 1866 they had by treaty agreed to allow United States to 

Teller to Fenlon, Apr. 4, 1882, Sen. Ex. Doc. 54, 48th Cong., Ist sess., Vol. IV, p. 99. 

16 Augur to Adjutant General of the Army, Apr. 7, 1884. Sen. Ex. Doc. 17, 48th Cong., 2d sess., Vol. I, 
a Ex. Doc. 16, 48th Cong., 2d sess., Vol. I. 

18 Proclamation of July 23, 1885, 24 Stats. 1023. The ranchmen later asserted that Cleveland, by com- 
pelling immediate removal of herds from the Cheyenne-Arapaho reservation, struck the cattle interests 


of the United States a blow from which they never recovered. 
See Sheridan’s report, July 21,1885. House Ex. Doc. 1, 49th Cong., Ist sess., Vol. II, pt. II, pp. 69-70. 


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316 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


locate friendly Indians there, the title to remain with the Cherokees 
until such Indians had been so located. Under the terms of this 
treaty, several tribes had been placed in the Outlet, but the major 
portion of it, amounting to over 6,000,000 acres, remained unoccupied 
in the hands of the Cherokees. ‘Trail herds crossing Oklahoma early 
formed the practice of lingering there, in some cases spending several 
months on these rich pasture lands. Ranchmen in Kansas also began 
to allow their cattle to cross the line into the Cherokee Outlet, and 
in some cases drove them into that region for the winter when grass 
was scarce on the Kansas side of the line. 

In 1879 the Cherokees awoke to the possibilities of revenue that 
might be derived from the Outlet and sent a collector there to levy 
a grazing tax on all cattle. By this time a large portion of the region 
had been occupied by ranchmen with their herds. Some of these 
cattlemen held ranges under the cover of the names of Cherokee citi- 
zens who had taken up claims under a sort of assumed headright. 
Others were occupying pasture lands without any shadow of right, the 
various individuals determining among themselves the boundaries of 
each man’s range under what was known as “cow custom.” ”! 

Most of these men paid cheerfully the grazing tax of 40 cents a 
head per year levied by the Cherokees, but a few evaded this pay- 
ment, so that it was impossible to collect for a large number of the 
cattle on the Outlet. Men living in Kansas near the border would 
drive their cattle across the line into the Cherokee Outlet to avoid 
paying the property tax on them in Kansas and then drive them 
back into Kansas in order to avoid paying the grazing tax to the 
Cherokee. 

In order to protect themselves and their ranges against these un- 
scrupulous individuals, and also to aid in determining the rights of 
each man, the ranchmen who were regularly paying the Cherokee 
for grazing privileges formed, in 1880, a tentative association. The 
organization was a very loose one and was merely designed to fix the 
dates and places of round-ups, to provide some method of settling 
disputes, to take some measures for protection against trespassers, 
and also to design plans to combat fires, wolves, thieves, and other 
destructive agencies.” 

As more and more cattle were brought into the Outlet, fences were 
erected about many ranges as a convenience in holding the animals. 
Also, the Cherokees became more efficient in collecting the grazing tax. 
The treasurer of the Cherokee Nation came each year to Caldwell, 
Kans., and established an oflice there for the collection of this money, 


2” Testimony of Ben S. Miller before the Senate investigating committee, Jan. 9, 1885. Sen. Rep. 1278, 
49th Cong., 1st sess., Vol. VIII, pp. 79-80. 


1Tbid. 
2 Testimony of John A, Blair before the Senate investigating committee Jan. 21, 1885. Sen. Rep. 1278, 


49th Cong., ist sess., Vol. VIII, p 180. 


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HISTORY OF THE RANCH CATTLE INDUSTRY IN OKLAHOMA 317 


but in spite of his best efforts it was impossible to get all that was 
rightfully due.” 

In the meantime the fame of the Cherokee Outlet as a desirable 
field for ranching had spread to such an extent that the Department 
of the Interior began to receive numerous inquiries relative to the 
matter of securing grazing privileges in that territory. Replies to 
some of these referred the inquirers to the Cherokee authorities, with 
the explanation that the lands in question were in the possession and 
under the jurisdiction of the Cherokee Nation of Indians, and some- 
times added the information that these Indians granted permits for 
grazing cattle there.* However, to inquiries as to whether or not the 
Interior Department would permit a lease to be negotiated with these 
Indians for a term of years and would recognize it and protect the 
lessees, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs returned a reply in the 
negative.” 

It was evident that the tenure of these men occupying the Outlet 
with herds of cattle was very precarious, and late in 1882 their opera- 
tions were reported to the Department of the Interior, and an order 
was issued requiring them to remove all fences and other improve- 
ments from these lands within 20 days, failing which they would be 
removed by the military.”* Fortunately for the ranchmen, the War 
Department again showed the utmost reluctance to carry out the 
request of the Department of the Interior. In the meantime, such a 
storm of protest was aroused that the order was held in suspension 
and the cattlemen were allowed to try to make some arrangement 
with the Cherokee authorities for a more permanent occupation of 
the Outlet.”” 

This they did in the spring of 1883, by forming an organization 
known as the Cherokee Strip Live Stock Association, and obtaining 
from the Cherokee National Council a lease of the Outlet for a term 
of five years at a rental of $100,000 a year.” 

The association thus formed was perhaps the largest organization 
in the world for the promotion of the livestock industry. It was 
chartered under the laws of Kansas, and embraced more than a 
hundred individuals and firms. Its members held at this time 
some 300,000 head of cattle upon the Cherokee Outlet and enormous 
numbers elsewhere. Its surveyors set to work to determine the 
boundaries of each member’s range, and its court of arbitration 


% The amounts collected each year were «s follows: 1879, $1,100; 1880, $7,620; 1881, $21,555.54; 1882, 
$41, 233.81. See Cherokee Advocate, Feb. 6, 1885. 

*4 Acting Commissioner Stevens to Alvord and Woodruff, May 6, 1881. Sen. Ex. Doc. 54, 48th Cong., Ist 
sess., Vol. IV, p. 128. Also, Stevens to Holt, May 20, 1882. Ibid., p. 10. 

% Price to Strong, Oct. 11, 1881. Ibid., p. 128. 

2% Price to Tufts, Dec. 30, 1882. Ibid., p. 130. 

27 Teller to Price, Mar. 16, 1883. lbid., p. 150. 

#%Sen. Ex. Doc, 17, 48th Cong. 2d sess. Vol. I, pp. 151-152. 


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318 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


heard and settled questions involving tens of thousands of dollars.” 
Its power and influence were of the greatest. Some of its members 
drove their herds into the region known as ‘‘Old Oklahoma,” others 
occupied some of the reservations to the south. The cattlemen who 
had been removed from the Cheyenne and Arapaho country grad- 
ually came drifting back again, and men belonging to the Cherokee 
Strip Live Stock Association also took herds into that region. Other 
associations were formed but not on so large a scale. 

These associations were unique. The ranchmen were without any 
adequate protection of law and in consequence formed these extra 
legal organizations, not with the object of securing liberty under 
ideals of individualism as was the case with most earlier frontier 
organizations, but to protect property—their herds of cattle. Thus 
they were economic, rather than political, in their nature, and fore- 
shadowed the later associational arrangements of “big business”’ 
that sought to act as corporate persons in accordance with frontier 
ideals. 

For more than six years the Cherokee Strip Live Stock Association 
was a great power in the Southwest. It fenced the remaining lands 
of the Outlet, improved the breed of cattle, provided better shipping 
facilities at the various “cow towns,” sought diligently to protect the 
property of its members against thieves, fire, wolves, and disease, and 
all the while carried on a bitter struggle against a multitude of op- 
posing elements that sought to destroy it. In this struggle the asso- 
ciation always proved the victor until it was at last forced to yield 
to the power of no less an antagonist than the United States Govern- 
ment itself. 

Even then it was not through any fault or mismanagement on the 
part of its directors and members that the association was driven out 
of this region. It was merely the victim in a struggle between the 
United States Government and the Cherokees in which the former 
sought to induce the latter to cede the lands of the Outlet to furnish 
homes for white settlers. The great corporation which had for years 
withstood the attacks of many bitter enemies was at last caught and 
crushed between these two powerful opposing forces. It was the 
more or less ‘‘innocent bystander,” or perhaps it would be more 
correct to say it was the source of food supply of one of the opponents 
which must be destroyed in order to force the enemy to surrender. 

At the expiration of the five-year term for which the Cherokee Out- 
let had been leased, the association obtained from the Cherokees a new 
lease for a second period of five years, paying this time the sum of 
$200,000 a year. But the Government of the United States had 


® Lyons to Eldred, July 21, 1883, Aug. 26, 1883, and Sept. 26, 1883. Chas. Eldred Papers. 
Lyons to Eldred, Dec. 8, 1888. Chas. Eldred Papers. 


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HISTORY OF THE RANCH CATTLE INDUSTRY IN OKLAHOMA 3819 


determined to secure a cession of these lands from the Cherokees in 
order that they might be opened to white settlement, and now, 
through the Cherokee Commission, appointed for that purpose, offered 
the Indians $1.25 an acre for all the lands of the Outlet. Since they 
had already been offered $3 an acre, or a total sum of $18,000,000, 
for the Outlet, by a cattle syndicate, provided they could get the 
consent of the United States to sell,*! the Cherokees naturally refused 
the offer of the Government and persisted in this refusal in spite of 
repeated pleadings and bullyings. 

Accordingly, after obtaining from the Attorney General an opinion 
that the Outlet leases had no legal force or validity, President Har- 
rison, about the middle of February, 1890, issued a proclamation for- 
bidding grazing on the lands of the Cherokee Outlet as prejudicial to 
the public interests, and ordering all cattle to be removed by October 
1, 1890, or sooner, if the lands were in the meantime opened to settle- 
ment.” 

The Indians here met with the same attitude on the part of the 
Government of the United States that they had met in Georgia 
more than half a century before. Their lands were needed for white 
settlement, and yet they refused to cede their equity for what the 
United States officials regarded as a fair price. As a result, and in 
order to compel this cession, it was decided that they must be de- 
prived of all revenue or benefit from these lands until such time as 
they were willing to yield. 

The removal of the ranchmen from the Outlet and the opening of 
the latter to white settlement was inevitable sooner or later. But 
the removal of the cattlemen at just this time was a political rather 
than an economic step, though the ultimate purpose of the Govern- 
ment was a great economic change in this region through the opening 
of this land to agricultural settlement. Since this settlement did 
not take place for more than three and a half years after the 
issuance of the President’s proclamation, and not until almost three 
years after the ranchmen had been forced out, the conclusion follows 
that the ranchmen were not removed in order to make room for 
settlers, but to stop the revenue derived from these lands by the 
Cherokees, and so induce the Indians to cede this area upon the terms 
offered. This cession they were at last forced to make, though the 
price paid was a little more than was at first offered, amounting 
to about $1.40 an acre.® 


81See 25 Stats. 1005, and Sen. Mise. Doc. 80, 50th Cong., 2d sess., p. 20. 

%3See Opinion of Attorney General Miller, 19 Opinions, 499, and 26 Stats. 1557. This opinion of Attor- 
ney General Miller merely reaffirmed that of Attorney General Garland given July 21, 1885. See 18 
Opinions, 235. 

%See agreement in Sen. Ex. Doc. 56, 52 Cong., 2d sess., Vol. V, pp. 15-16. 


820 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


The replacing of the ranchmen on the Cherokee Outlet with an 
agricultural population was but one chapter in the story of the 
struggle between the cattlemen of Oklahoma and the pioneer farmers 
of adjoining States. It was a struggle which had begun almost as 
soon as cattle had been brought into that territory and was to con- 
tinue practically without intermission until the herds had been 
forced out and the entire region given over to farming. 

As agricultural settlement advanced steadily westward on either 
side of Oklahoma and good farming lands became increasingly scarce, 
the pioneer farmers began to look with longing eyes toward the 
great reservations of the Indian Territory. The presence there of 
many ranchmen, while they themselves were excluded, aroused the 
bitter resentment of the pioneer farmers, who at last began to make 
determined efforts to secure the opening of these lands to settlement. 
Naturally these efforts were resisted by the cattlemen, and the hos- 
tility of the would-be settlers was greatly increased by this resistance. 
The ranchmen came to be regarded as weelthy monopolists, and it 
was alleged that they bribed the United States officials, corrupted the 
Indians, and intimidated those who sought to oppose them.” 

Not only did the settlers along the border seek to secure the open- 
ing of these lands by act of Congress, but failing in this, they made 
determined efforts to settle some of them in defiance of law, and when 
they were removed by the military many of them insisted that the 
action of the United States Government had been taken at the 
instigation of the cattlemen. Little newspapers grew up near the 
border, established apparently for the twofold purpose of “‘ booming”’ 
the opening of Oklahoma lands to settlement and of abusing the 
cattlemen. The press throughout the country took the matter up; 
the question of opcaing Oklahoma to settlement found its way into 
politics, and office seekers, both local and national, with an eye upon 
the farmer vote, urged it vigorously, and added their voices to the 
general outcry against the ranchmen. That the occupation of the 
country by agricultural settlement was inevitable sooner or later must 
have been obvious to all. The important thing about the whole 
matter is that the ranchmen in this way received much unfavorable 
advertising. They were so critcized and abused by these would-be 
settlers and their sympathizers that along with public opinion favor- 
able to opening the Indian lands to settlement there also grew up, 
in the same proportion, a public opinion bitterly adverse to the cattle- 
men. ‘This was especially true because added to this clamor was that 
of the homesteaders in other Western States and Territories who urged 
that the ranchmen monopolized the public domain and sought to 
prevent settlement. 


“Jackson and Cole, Oklahuma, pp. 134-135. 


HISTORY OF THE RANCH CATTLE INDUSTRY IN OKLAHOMA 32] 


Out of all this there grew up and crystallized a public opinion that 
has never changed—to the effect that the cattlemen of our western 
plains were in a great measure selfish, brutal, and domineering, using 
their great wealth and the power derived from organization to oppress. 

It is false in a great measure, but the opinion still persists, because 
the ranching industry largely disappeared before it had time to live 
down the charges thus preferred against it. In consequence, there is 
a widespread popular belief that the cattlemen were among the first 
“malefactors of great wealth” of the nineteenth century. From these 
accusations it was but a step to accusations against railways, manu- 
facturers and others, so it may be confidently asserted that the strong 
public sentiment against combinations of capital and unscrupulous 
individuals of great wealth which characterized the “‘Populistic South- 
west’’ was in part due in its origin to this struggle over Oklahoma 
between the ranchmen and pioneer settlers. 

It was a losing struggle for the cattle interests, however, and in 
time the dike placed about Oklahoma by governmental decree gave 
way and settlement came pouring through. Even then the replac- 
ing of ranching by agriculture in Oklahoma was most peculiar and 
has no counterpart in any other State. The settling of most West- 
ern States by an agriculture population has been like the slow, steady 
leaking of water into the hold of an old-type ship until it was full 
That of Oklahoma was like the sudden bursting of water into the 
hold of a modern vessel divided into many water-tight compartments. 
The first region to be opened to settlement in the Indian country 
was “Old Oklahoma”’ which was opened in 1889, and almost each suc- 
ceeding year for the next decade saw one or more areas added to the 
original nucleus. The Panhandle was added to Oklahoma in 1890 by 
the organic act; the Sac and Fox, Potawatomi, and Iowa Reserva- 
tions were opened in 1891; the Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation in 
1892; the Cherokee Outlet in 1893, and various others, one by one 
until the last one, the ‘‘Big Pasture,” was settled in 1906. 

Long before the last one was settled, the Department of the Interior 
had adopted a system of leasing Indian lands for grazing purposes, 
and so as each Indian reservation was opened and settled, in most 
cases almost in a single day, the ranchmen withdrew their herds 
into those remaining until with the opening of the last they found 
there were no longer any pasture lands left to them. 

It should be noted that opening these lands to white settlement 
did not constitute taking the land from the Indian and giving it to 
the settler. The Indian did not use the land. As an economic 
factor he was negligible. What really happened was the taking of 
the land from the ranchmen and the giving it over to agriculture. 


97244°—25——21 


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322 AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 


But few better examples can be found in our history of the 
complete change in the economic life of large regions through legisla- 
tion. 

It should be observed, too, that the peculiar method of settling 
Oklahoma proved disastrous to many ranchmen. Large areas were 
settled in a single day; no time was given for adjustment; crowds of 
settlers, swarming across lands not yet open to settlement in order 
to reach others that were, burned the grass, cut the fences, and 
brought disease to the cattle. Changes came with startling rapidity. 
The cattlemen unable to adapt themselves to these conditions suf- 
fered heavy financial losses, with the result that as the industry 
passed out many of them found themselves entirely ruined. 

Even after some of the reservations were settled, the cattle indus- 
try lingered on, in some cases for a year or two, but here it mingles 
with another story—that of ranching upon the publicdomain. How- 
ever there was little of this, and generally speaking the coming of 
agricultural settlement marked the passing of the ranch cattle indus- 
try in Oklahoma. 


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INDEX 


Compiled by H. S. Parsons, Library of Congress 


Abbott, Wilbur C., of writing of hist. spec. com. 
(1921), 23, 51, 105. 

Abel, Annie H., of hist. mss. comm. (1921), 20, 104. 

Abilene, Kans., cattle drives to, 311. 

Aecomack, 213. 

Activities, A. H. A. advisory com. on, 72. 

Activities of the American Historical Association, 
1884-1920, Leland, 73-82. 

Adams, Charles F., Three Episodes of New England 
History, 151. 

Adams, Charles K., Manual of Hist. Lit., 51, 69, 77, 
95. 

Adams, George B., life councilor, A. H. A., 13, 19. 

Adams, James T., Hist. of the Town of Southampton 
(N. Y.), 151. 

Adams, John, receipt for making a New England 
town, 246. 

Adjutant General. See U. 8. Adjutant General. 

Agenda, A. H. A. com. (1921), 19, 107; name 
adopted, 104; established, 107. 

AGRARIAN DISCONTENT IN THE SOUTH, 1880-1900, 
Kendrick, 48-49, 265-272. 

Agricultural Fair, Influence upon American Society, 
1830-1851, Kellar, 47. 

Agricultural History Society, joint session with A. 
H. A. (1920), 34, 47-48; policy com. recommenda- 
tions, 71; activities, 73. 

Agricultural Revolution in New England, 1815-1860, 
Bidwell, 47. 

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES, EARLY DEVELOPMENT 
IN THE UNITED STATES, True, 293-306. 

AGRICULTURE AS A FIELD FOR HISTORICAL ReE- 
SEARCH (abstract), Schmidt, 161-162. 

AGRICULTURE IN PENNSYLVANIA, DESCRIPTION 
AND TRAVEL AS SOURCE MATERIAL FOR THE 
History of, Kelsey, 283-292. 

Alabama, Dept. of Archives and Hist., calendaring 
French archives, 133; war records collection, 136, 
142. 

Alains, 169. 

Alaska, U. S. policy with regard to, 123. 

Allied Powers, favored free Poland, 204. 

Allison, William H., of bibliog. com. (1921), 22. 

Amalgamated Clothing Workers, 159, 160. 

American Audit Co., audit of A. H. A. treas. accts., 
56, 63-65. 

American Background of Federagism, Hockett, 46. 

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign 
Missions, 120. 

American Catholic Historical Association, joint 
sessiun with A. H. A. (1920), 34. 


American Classical League, com. on Latin as 
internatl. language, 186. 

American Council of Learned Societies, A. H. A. 
affiliated with, 60; A. H. A. policy com. recom- 
mendations, 71-72, 103; activities, 74. 

American Historical Association, act of incorpora- 
tion, 5; constitution, 11; by-laws, 12; officers 
elected for 1921, 13-14, 52; terms of office, 16-18; 
officers and committees (1921), 19-23, 104-105; organ- 
ization and activities, 24-25; historical prizes, 27- 
28; membership, 29-30, 49, 59; amdt. to consti- 
tution and by-laws, 52, 56, 57, 58, 99, 102; deaths 
(1920), 60; recommendations as to ann. rept., 67- 
68; activities (1884-1920), 73-82; account of ann. 
rept. 75. See also Annual report.—Budget.—Fi- 
nances. 

American Historical Review, board of editors (1921), 
20, 107; cost of printing, 50; report of treas. (1920), 
62-63; report of Am. Audit Co. on finances (1920), 
65; policy com. recommendations, 71, 72; report of 
editors (1920), 82-83. 

American Jewish Committee, war records, 145. 
American Library Association, A. BR. A. coopera- 
tion in comp. manual of hist. lit., 69, 94, 95, 103. 
American manufactures, resulting from embargo, 

258-259, 260. 

American Philosophical Society, 299, 302. 

American Political Science Association, joint ses- 
sion with A. H. A. (1920), 34, 49. 

American Red Cross. See Red Cross. 

American Society of Church History, activities, 73. 

American Sociological Society, joint session with A. 
H. A. (1920), 34. 

American travels, bibliog., 77,103. 

American University Union, 74, 100. 

American Year Book, 82. 

Ames, Herman V., of audit com. (1920), 56; report of 
audit com. (1920), 56, 65; prize awarded to (1896), 
80. 

Ampére, André, experiments in electromagnetism, ~ 
275-276. 

Anatomy, 176. 

Anderson, Frank M., of military hist. prize spec. 
com. (1918-1920), 89. 

Andrew D. White fund, policy com. recommenda- 
tions, 72; origin, 74. 

Andrews, Charles M., of com. on obtaining tran- 
scripts from foreign archives (1921), 22, 104. 

Anne, Queen, English Political Parties and Leaders 
in the Reign of, Morgan, 84. 


323 


— 

| | 

| 


324 


Annual meeting of A. H. A., program com. (1921), 
20, 104; local com. (1921), 20; PROCEEDINGS (1920), 
31-111; place of meeting (1920), 33, (1921), 51, 57, 
66, 102; program (1920), 53-55; policy com. (1920), 
recommendations, 67, 102-103; places, 74; attend- 
ance (1920), 108-111. 

Appointments, A. H. A. com. (1921), 19, 108. 

Architecture in the History of the Colonies and of the 
Republic, Kimball, 46. 

Archives. See Obtaining transcripts from foreign 
archives, A. H. A. com. 

Archives of Hawaii, Lydecker, 121. 

Aretseus, 175. 

Ashley, R. L., discussion on education for citizen- 
ship in the schools, 125-126. 

Ashley, W. J., economic hist. prof. at Harvard, 155. 

Aspirations of One Small State, Putnam, 43. 

Association of Collegiate Alumngw, Nat. club house 
com., reception, 35; vote of thanks to, 107. 

Audit committee of A. H. A. (1920) appointed, 56; 
report, 56, 65. 

Austin, Stephen F., papers, 83. 

Austria, enlightened despotism in, 196, 197. 

Avars, 170. 

Baldwin, Simeon E., life councilor, A. H. A., 13, 19. 

Baltimore, Md., war records collection, 137; effect 
of embargo, 253, 

Barker, Eugene C., of hist. mss. comm. (1921), 
20, 104; Austin papers, 83; conf. of hist. socs, com. 
on coop. of hist. socs. and depts., report (1920), 
132-134, 

Bartram, John, method of fertilizing, 287. 

Bassett, John S., sec. A. H. A. (1921), 13, 19, 52, 57; 
of agenda com. (1921), 19, 107; chairman meetings 
and relations com. (1921), 19, 108; of finance com. 
(1921), 19, 108; of appointments com. (1921), 19, 
108; of publications com. (1921), 21, 104; chairman 
com. to cooperate with Peoples of Am. Soc. (1921), 
23, 108; report as sec. (1920), 59-60; at meeting of 
policy com., 67; at meeting of membership com., 
84, 85; present at council meetings, 100, 102, 103, 
105, 107. 

Bath and West of England Society, 296. 

Baxter, Richard, Christian Directory, 228. 

Bay State Historical League, work, 38; formed, 151. 

Beauregard, Nettie H., of local arrangements 
com, (1921), 20, 108. 

Becker, Carl, of board of editors, Am. Hist. Rev. 
(1921), 20, 52; declines nomination for executive 
council, 57; report of policy com. (1920), 67-73. 

Beer, George L., memorial, 57, 58, 59, 101; bequest 
for European hist. prize, 101. See also George L. 
Beer prize. 

Belaunde, Victor A., Communistic System of the 
Incas, 44. 

Belote, Theodore, address, 36. 

Benton, Elbert J., of service com. (1921), 22, 108. 

Berger, Jacob, used gypsum for fertilizer, 288. 

Berlin, Decree 253. 

Bibliography, A. H. A. com. (1921), 22, 104; policy 
com. recommendations, 69, 103; activities, 77. 

Bibliography of American travel, A. H. A. sub- 
com, (1921), 22, 108. 

Bibliography of American Travels, 77. 

Bibliography of Historical Societies, Griffin, 77. 

Bibliography of historical socieites, conf. of hist. 
socs. com. on (1921), 21, 38, 132. 


INDEX 


Bibliography of modern English history, A. H. A. 
spec. com, (1921), 22. 105; efforts toward, 69, 77- 
78, 103; report (1920), 88. 

Bibliography of the Printed Archives of the Original 
States, 76. 

Biddle, Nicholas, effect of embargo in Philadelphia, 
261. 

Bidwell, Percy W., Agricultural Revolution in New 
England, 1815-1860, 47. 

Bieber, Ralph P., of local arrangements com. (1921), 
20, 108. 

Biggar, H. P., treas. London branch, 100. 

Binney, Horace, effect of embargo, 257. 

Bixby, William K., chairman of local arrange- 
ments com, (1921), 20, 108. 

Bliss, W. F., of ex. com. P. C. B. (1921), 15, 122; 
presided at P. C. B. meeting (1920), 115; Social 
Sciences and Education for Citizenship in the 
Schools, 124. 

Boardman, Mabel, address, 34. 

Bolton, Herbert E., present at council meeting, 102, 
103, 105; presided at P. C. B. dinner (1920), 115. 

Bonham, Milledge L., jr., of membership com. 
(1921), 21, 108; of military hist. prize spec. com. 
(1913-1920), 89, chairman (1918-1920), 89; final 
report military hist. prize spec. com. (1920), 89-90. 

Bordley, John B., chairman com. of Phila. Soc. for 
Promotion of Agric., 299. 

Boucher, Chauncey §8., pres. Miss. Valley Hist. 
Assoc., 34. 

Bourne, Henry E., of nominations com. (1921), 
20, 52, 57; of membership com. (1921), 21, 108; of 
hist. teaching in the schools com. (1921), 22, 108; 
present at council meeting, 100, 102, 103, 107; 
present at conf. on report of hist. and educa. for 
citizenship in the schools com., 107. 

Boyd, Allen R., letter transmitting ann. rept., 7; 
editor, A. H. A. (1921), 19; of publications com. 
(1921), 21, 104; of military hist. com. (1921), 22, 
104; editor’s report (1920), 83-84; of military hist. 
prize spec. com. (1913-1920), 89; present at council 
meeting, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107; report of military 
hist. prize com. (1920), 105. 

Bradford, Gov., History of Plymouth Plantation, 
215-216. 

Braintree, Mass., resolutions on stamp act, 247. 

Break-up of the Hapsburg Empire, Coolidge, 43. 

Bretz, Julian P., of membership com. (1921), 21, 
108. 

Brewery, Flour, Cereal, and Soft Drink Workers, 
159. 

Brief Statement of the Opportunities for Historical 
Research in Hawaii, Leebrick, 119-121. 

Brigham, Clarence S., of service com. (1921), 22, 
108. 

British Association for the Advancement of Science, 
com. to study pract. of internat]. language, 186. 
British Classical Association, com. on internat). 

language, 186. 

Brookings, Robert 8., chairman local com. (1921), 
107. 

Brooks, Robert P., of hist. mss. comm. (1921), 20, 
104; of membership com. (1921), 21, 108. 

Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners, 159. 

Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, 159. 

Brown, Louise F., of membership com. (1921), 21, 
104, (1920), 84. 


| 


INDEX 825 


Brown, Marshall §., of com. to formulate rules for 
Geo. L. Beer prize (1921), 20, 105. 

Bubonic plague, 177. 

Buck, Solon J., of conf. of hist. socs. com. on hndbk. 
of hist. socs. (1921), 21, 132; of bibliog. of Am. 
travel subcom. (1921), 22, 108; of public archives 
comm. (1921), 22, 104. 

Buckwheat, Cazenove journal, 290. 

Budget of A. H. A. (1921), 56, 105-106. 

Buffalo, N. Y., appropriation for war records, 136, 
137. 

Bureau of Navigation. See U. S. Bureau of Navi- 
gation. 

Burr, George L., life councilor, A. H. A., 14, 19; 
present at council meetings, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107. 

Burton, Clarence M.. subscription for calendaring 
French archives, 133. 

Butler, Samuel, ridiculed New England towns, 
246-247. 

Byrne, Eugene H., of membership com. (1921), 21, 
104, (1920), 84. 

Calendar of printed letters rel. to Am. hist., A. H. A. 
com. (1908), 81. 

California, war records collection, 136, 138, 140; 
newspapers, 144; war history, 145. 

Callahan, James M., cf audit com. (1920), 56; report 
of audit com. (1920), 56, 65. 

Calm Address to Our American Colonies, Wesley, 
46. 

CAPITALISTIC AND SOCIALISTIC TENDENCIES IN THE 
PURITAN COLONIES, Day, 44-45, 223-235. 

Carlton, Frank T., address, 36; FIELDS OF RE- 
SEARCH IN ECONOMIC HISTORY, 159-161. 

Carnegie Institution, Dept. of Hist. Research to 
publish calendar of Parisian dtchives rel. to Miss. 
Valley, 38, 133; Dept. of Hist. Research estab- 
lished, 81. 

Caroline minuscule, 183. 

Cattle, Hist. oF INDUSTRY IN OKLA., 307-322. 

Cazenove, Theophile, Journal, 1794, 290-292. 

Celsus, 175. 

Central Powers, joint manifesto rel. to independent 
Poland, 203. 

Champlain, Samuel de, account of Plymouth, 213. 

Chandler, Charles L., of hist. congress at Rio de 
Janeiro spec. com. (1921), 23, 105. 

Channing, Edward, life councilor, A. H. A., 14, 19; 
of meetings and relations com. (1921), 19, 108; 
pres. A. H. A. (1920), 34; Historical Retrospect, 
25; presides at annual meeting, 56; presides at 
council meeting, 100, 102, 103, 105. 

Chase, Philip P., of hist. teaching in the schools 
com. (1921), 22, 108. 

Cherokee Indians, cattle grazing on lands of, 316- 
319. 

Cherokee Outlet, cattle raising, 315-320; opened to 
settlement, 321. 

Cherokee Strip Live Stock Association, 317-318. 

Chester County, Pa., Hessian fly, 290. 

Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation, land leases 
314-315; opened to settlement, 321. 

Cheyney, Edward P., 2d vice pres. A. H. A. (1921), 
13, 19, 52, 57; of agenda com. (1921), 19, 107; of 
appointments com. (1921), 19, 108; chairman 
bibliog. ef modern English hist. spec. com. (1921), 
22,105; report of editors of Am. Hist. Rev. (1920), 
82-83; report bibliog. of mod. Engl. hist. spec. 
com. (1920), 88; present at council meeting, 107. 


Chicago Historical Society, calendaring French 
archives, 133. 

Christian Directory, Baxter, 228. 

Clark, A. Howard, bibliog. of members of A. H. A., 
77. 

Clark, Robert C., pres. P. C. B. (1921), 15, 121. 

Clelland, R.G., presided at P. C. B. meeting (1920), 
115; chairman P. C. B. auditing com. (1920), 121. 

Clemen, Rudolf A., Economic Bases of the American 
System of Large-Scale Meat Packing, 47-48. 

Coast Guard. See U. S. Coast Guard. 

Coke of Holkham, 300. 

Colby, Charles W., of writing of hist. spec. com. 
(1921), 23, 51, 105. 

Colding, Ludwig A., work in electromagnetism, 277. 

Cole, Dr., Huntington Library collection of Am. 
hist., 119. 

Collection of State War Records, Holbrook, 135. 

College of Hawaii. See Hawaii, University of. 

Colman, Benjamin, election sermon, 232. 

Colonial Civil Service, Lowell, 82. 

Colonial entries in Privy- Council Register, 81. 

Commission on Training Camp Activities, war 
records, 141, 

Committee on PublicInformation. See U.S. Com- 
mittee on Public Information. 

Commons, Prof., Hist. of Labor in the U. S., 161. 

Communistic System of the Incas, Belaunde, 44. 

Compleat Body of Divinity, Willard, 230. 

Confederate Government, Control of Manufacturing 
by the, Ramsdell, 48. 

Conference of historical societies, members (1921), 
21, 104; annual meeting (1920), 37-38; policy com. 
recommendations, 70; account of, 79; report (1920), 
85-88; PROCEEDINGS (1920), 129-252. 

Conference on economic history, papers (1920), 
153-162. 

Conger, A. L., editor Military Historian and Econo- 
mist, 80; chairmam military hist. prize spec. com. 
(1913-1916), 89. 

Connecticut, war records collection, 136. 

Connor, L. G., agricultural hist. proposal, 67, 71. 

Connor, R. D. W., of public archives comm. (1921), 
22, 104. 

Contribution of Political Science to Education, Hunt, 
122-123. 

Control of Manufacturing by the Confederate Govern- 
ment, Ramsdell, 48. 

Coolidge, Archibald C., of board of editots, Am. 
Hist. Rev. (1921), 20, 52, 107; Break-up of the Haps- 
burg Empire, 43. 

Cooperation of historical societies and departments, 
conf. of hist. socs. com. on, report (1920), 132-134. 

Coordination of Historical Societies within the States, 
Schafer, 131, 150. 

Coppin, Mr., pilot to Pilgrims, 220. 

Corwin, Edward S., of com. to formulate rules for 
Geo. L. Beer prize (1921), 20, 105. 

Council of National Defense. See U. 8. Council of 
National Defense. 

Cox, Isaac J., of Justin Winsor prize com. (1921), 
20, 104. 

Crammer, C. R., report of Am. Audit Co. on A. H. 
A. finances, 63-65. 

Crofts, F. S., of Harper & Bros., 94. 

Cross, Arthur L., councilor, A. H. A. (1921), 14, 19, 
52, 57; of agenda com. (1921), M9, 107; of bibliog. of 
modern English hist. spec. com. (1921), 22,105; 
present at council meeting, 107. 


326 


Cunningham, Charles H., of hist. congress at Rio 
de Janeiro spec. com. (1921), 23, 105. 

Cushman, Robert, Sin and Danger of Self-Love, 229. 

Custis, George W. P., annual sheep shearings, 300. 

Cutler, Timothy, Firm Union of a People, 232. 

Dale, Edward E., History oF THE RANCH CATTLE 
INDUSTRY IN OKLAHOMA, 307-322. 

Dalzell, William, white lead, 259. 

Daszynski, Ignace, 203, 205. 

Dawson, Edgar, of board of editors, Hist. Outlook 
(1921), 22, 105; proposed programs, 124-125. 

Day, Clive, chairman Justin Winsor prize com. 
(1921), 20, 104; address, 35; CAPITALISTIC AND 
SOCIALISTIC TENDENCIES IN THE PURITAN 
COLONIES, 44-45, 223-235; RECOGNITION OF 
Economic HISTORY AS A DISTINCT SUBJECT, 
155-156. 

Deerfield, Mass., Indian massacre, 244. 

Delaware, war records collection, 146. 

Department of Agriculture. See U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture. 

Dermer, Captain, and settlement of Plymouth, 45; 
brings Tisquantum back to England, 215; ex- 
plores Mass. coast, 215, 216, 217, 219. 

DESCRIPTION AND TRAVEL AS SOURCE MATERIAL 
FOR THE HIsToRY OF EARLY AGRICULTURE 
IN PENNSYLVANIA, Kelsey, 283-292. 

DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTROMAGNETISM DURING 
THE Last HUNDRED YeARS, Kennelly, 40, 
273-281. 

Dictionary of American Biography, policy com. 
recommendations, 72. 

Dindley, Harlow, discussion of federation of hist. 
socs., 85. 

Dioscorides, 175. 

Disposition of records, A. H. A. com. on (1921), 20; 
report (1920), 102. 

District of Colymbia, agricultural exhibition, 1810, 
301. 

Dmowski, chairman of Polish Natl. Com., 201, 205. 

DNIEPER, ORIGIN OF THE RUSSIAN STATE ON 
THE, Rostovtsev, 41-42, 163-171. 

Docket, A. H. A. com., name changed to agenda 
com., 104. 

Doctrinale, Villa Dei, 185. 

Documentary historical publications of the U. S., 
A. H. A. spec. com. (1921), 22, 105; policy com. 
recommendations, 69, 103. 

Documentary hist. of States, 81-82. 

Documents relutive to Illinois and the War, 148. 

Dodd, William E., of nominations com. (1921), 20, 
52, 57; report of policy com. (1920), 67-73. 

Dodge City, Kan., cattle drives to, 311. 

Dole, S. B., former President of Hawaii, 121. 

Dole, Sava L., of ex. com. P. C. B. (1921), 15, 122. 

Donatus, 185. 

Donn: n, Elizabeth, Slave Trade into South Carolina 
befcre the Revolution, 45. 

Donuelly, Ignatius, political career, 48. 

Drumm, Stella M., of local arrangements com. 
(1921), 20, 108. 

Du Cange, Glossarium ad Scriptores Mediae et 
Infimz Latinitatis, 181. 7 

Ducher, E. J. A., 84, 102. 

Dues, A. H. A., increase, 50, 56, 72-73. 

Duggan, Stephen P., Syria, Palestine,and Mandates, 


44. 


INDEX 


Dunning, William A., life councilor, A. H. A., 14, 
19; chairman com. to formulate rules for Geo. L. 
Beer prize (1921), 20, 105. 

Dutcher, George M., chairman bibliog. com. (1921), 
22, 104; ENLIGHTENED DEsPOTISM, 43, 187-198; 
chairman manual of hist. lit. spec. com. (1920), 51; 
report manual of hist. lit. spec. com. (1920), 94-99; 
present at council meeting, 102. 

Dwight, Timothy, Theology, Explained and De- 
Jended in a Series of Sermons, 231. 

Dynes, Sarah A., of membership com. (i921), 21, 
108; of board of editors, Hist. Outlook (1921), 22, 
105. 

EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL So- 
CIETIES IN THE UNITED STATEs. True, 293-306. 
Economic Bases of the American System of Large- 

Scale Meat Packing, Clemen, 47-48. 

Economic history. See Conference on economic 
history. 

Economics, importance in training and teaching of 
history, 123. 

Edinburgh Society of Improvers in the Knowledge 
of Agriculture in Scotland, 295. 

Electric Telegraph Company, 277. 

ELECTROMAGNETISM, DEVELOPMENT OF, DURING 
Last HUNDRED YEARS, Kennelly, 40, 273-281 

Elegantiz Linguz Latinz, Valla, 185. 

Eliot, Jared, drill plow, 301. 

Ellery, Eloise, of nominations com. (1921), 20, 52, 
57, 99. 

EMBARGO OF 1808, Sears, 47, 251-263. 

Endowment, A. H. A. com. on (1921), established, 
107. 

England, supremacy of the state, 189-190, 191. 

English history, bitfliog. of modern, 69, 77-78, 103. 

English Political Parties and Leaders in the Reign of 
Queen Anne, Morgan, 84. 

ENLIGHTENED DEspotTisM, Dutcher, 42, 187-198. 

Esarey, Logan, of hist. mss. comm. (1921), 20, 104. 

Essex, Earl of, friend of Gorges, 212. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW POLAND, Holt, 43-44, 
199-208. 

European historical societies, A. H. A. com. (1910), 
80. 

European history, reprints considered, 81. 

Evans, Austin P., of membership com. (1921), 21, 
108; Problem of Controlin Medieval Industry, 42. 
Executive council of A. H. A., members (1921), 
13-14, 19; report (1920), 65-67; minutes of meet- 
ings (1920), 100-107; proceedings adopted by 

correspondence (1920), 107-108. 

Faraday, discovery of electromagnetic induction, 
276. 

Farm wages, in early Pa., 238-289. 

Farmers’ Alliance, 272. 

Farrar, Victor, United States Policy with Regard to 
Alaska, 123. 

Fay, Sidney B., councilor, A. H. A. (1921), 14, 19, 
52, 57; of agenda com. (1921), 19, 107; of finance 
com. (1921), 19, 108; of bibliog. com. (1921), 22, 104; 
proposed manual of hist. lit., 95-97; present at 
council meeting, 107. 

Federalism, American Background of, Hockett, 46. 

Federation of Historical Societies of the Genesee 
Country, 152. 

Fenlon, Edward, lessee of Indian lands, 314-315. 


| | | 
e 
| 
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INDEX 


FIELD FOR THE TEACHING OF ECONOMIC HISTORY IN 
COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, Usher, 
156-159. 

FIELDS OF RESEARCH IN 
Carlton, 159-161. 

Finance, A. H. A. com. (1921), 19, 108; report on 
budget (1921), 105-106. 

Finances, A. H. A., report of treas. (1920), 49-50, 
61-65; report of audit com. (1920), 56, 65; estimates 
(1921), 56; report of Am. Audit Co., 56, 63-65; 
policy com. recommendations, 72-73, 102; sales of 
A. H. A. publications, 84. 

Firm Union ofa People, Cutler, 232. 

Fish, Carl R., councilor, A. H. A. (1921), 14, 19, 52, 
57; of meetings and relations com. (1921), 19, 108; 
of appointments com. (1921), 19, 108; of nomina- 
tions com. (1920), 99. 

Five Civilized Tribes, cattle industry, 312, 314. 

Fleming, Walter L., of program com. (1921), 20, 104. 

Fling, Fred M., of military hist. prize spec. com. 
(1913-1920), 89. 

Food Administration. 
tion. 

Ford, Guy S., chairman board of editors, Am. Hist. 
Rev. (1921), 20, 52, 105; of hist. teaching in the 
schools com. (1921), 22, 108; report of policy com. 
(1920), 67-73. 

Ford, Paul L., bibliogs. of members of A. H. A, 77. 

Ford, Worthington C., life councilor, A. H. A., 14, 
19; of service com. (1921), 22, 108; Bay State His- 
torical League, 38; of Mass. Hist. Soc., 85; investi- 
gation of Hawaiian archives, 120; discussion, 131, 
150; conf. of hist. socs. com. on coop. of hist. socs. 
and depts., report (1920), 132-134. 

Foreign archieves. See Obtaining transcripts from 
foreign archives, A. H. A. com. 

Fox, Dixon R., chairman hereditary patriotic socs. 
com. (1921), 22, 108. 

France, royal power in, 191-193. 

Francis, David R., of local arrangements com. 
(1921), 20, 108. 

Frederick II, of Germany, 195. 

Frederick the Great, enlightened despotism o/, 190, 
195. 

Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, 195. 

Frederick William I, of Prussia, 195. 

Free Oeconomical Society, 296, 299. 

Free Thought, Yesterday and To-day, Robinson, 40. 

French archives, calendaring, 133. 

Fronczak, of Polish National Com., 201. 

Fronticr in American History, Turner, 150. 

Frontiers Well Defended, Mather, 244. 

Fuel Administration. See U. 8. Fuel Administra- 
tion. 

Fuller, George N., of conf. of hist. socs. com. on 
handbk. of hist. socs. (1921), 21, 132. 

G. J. A. Ducher, Nussbaum, 84, 102. 

Galen, 175, 176. 

Galicia, 203, 205, 206, 207. 

Gallatin, Albert, letter from Philadelphia mer- 
chants, 255. 

Gambrill, J. Montgomery, of membership com. 
(1921), 21, 108. 

Garrison, Fielding H., RECENT REALIGNMENT IN 
THE HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL MEDICINE AND 
SCIENCE, 40, 173-178. 


EcONOMIC HISTORY, 


See U.S. Food Administra- 


827 


George L. Beer prize, com. to formulate rules for 
(1921), 20, 101, 105; establishment of, 51, 60; 
policy com. recommendation, 71, 103; account of, 
81; bequest for, 101. 

Germany, Spartacist Uprising, 43; enlightened 
despotism, 190; treaties of Westphalia, 194. 

Glossarium ad Scriptores Mediae et Infimae Latini- 
tatis, Du Cange, 181. 

Godard, George S., chairman conf. of hist. socs. 
(1921), 21, 38, 131; patriotic soes., 152. 

God’s Frown in the Death of Usefull Men, Stoddard, 
231. 

Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, influence on settlement of 
Plymouth, 45, 211-221; attempt to wreck New 
England Puritanism, 241. 

Gorges, John, married a daughter of Countess of 
Lincoln, 218. 

Gosnold, return from Buzzards Bay, 212. 

Grabski, 207. 

Gratz, Benjamin, of local arrangements com. (1921), 
20, 108. 

Great Civil War, 191. 

Great Western Railway, 277. 

Greely, John N., What Happens in Battle, 89, 105. 

Greene, Evart B., chairman program com. (1921), 
20, 104; conf. of hist. socs. com. on coop. of hist. 
socs. and depts., report (1920), 132-134. 

Griffin, A. P. C., of conf. of hist. socs. com. on 
bibliog. of hist. socs. (1921), 21, 132; continuation 
of bibliog. of pubs. of Am. and Canadian hist. 
socs., 69; Bibliog. of Hist. Socs., 77. 

Griffin, Grace G., Writings on Am. Hist., 77, 83. 

Gristmill, in Puritan colonies, 234. 

Growth of Autocracy in the Roman Empire, McFay- 
den, 41. 

Gundlach, John H., of local arrangements com. 
(1921), 20, 108. 

Gypsum, use for fertilizing, 288. 

Hamilton, J. G. de Roulhae, of nominations com. 
(1920), 99. 

Handbook of historical societies, conf. of hist. socs. 
com. on (1921), 21, 38, 132; reconrmended, 87. 

Hansen, M. L., Welfare Campaigns in Jowa, 148. 

Hapsburg Empire, Break-up of the, Coolidge, 43. 

Harper & Bros., proposed manual of hist. lit., 94. 

Hart, Albert B., life councilor, A. H. A., 13, 19; Am. 
Yr. Bk., 82; of military hist. prize spec. com. 
(1913-1920), 89. 

Haskins, Charles H., Ist vice pres. A. H. A. (1921), 
13, 19, 52, 57; chairman agenda com. (1921), 19, 107; 
report of policy com. (1920), 56, 67-73, 102-104 
delegate to Am. Council of Learned Socs., 60; 
present at council meeting, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107: 

Hawaii, Opportunities for Historical Research, 
119-121. 

Hawaii, University of, 121. 

Hawaiian Historical Society, 120, 121. 

Hawkins, Sir John, attempted voyage to New 
England, 214. 

Hay, Thomas R., awarded Robert M. Johnston 
prize, 51, 66, 89, 105; Hood’s Tenn. Campaign, 66, 
89, 105. 

Hayes, Carlton J. H., councilor, A. H. A. (1921), 14, 
19, 52, 57; of agenda com. (1921), 19, 107; of ap- 
pointments com. (1921), 19, 108; chairman pro- 
gram com. (1920), 35; address, 36; present at 
council meeting, 107. 


| 
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328 INDEX 


Helmholtz, Hermann L. F., work in electromagnet- 
ism, 277. 

Henry IV, king of France, asserted religious tolera- 
tion, 192. 

Henry, Joseph, electromagnets, 277-278. 

Herbert Baxter Adams prize, com. on (1921), 20-21, 
104; conditions of award, 27; list of awards, 28, 84; 
policy com. recommendations, 71; account of, 80. 

Hereditary patriotic societies, A. H. A. com. (1921), 
22, 104, 108; policy com. recommendations, 70, 103. 

HERITAGE OF THE PURITANS, Muzzey, 45, 237-249. 

Hessian fly, Cazenove journal, 290. 

Hicks, John D., Political Career of Ignatius Donnelly, 
48. 

High school history courses, 91-92. 

Historic highways, A. H. A. com. (1915), 82 

Historic sites, A. H. A. activities, 82. 

Historical celebrations, A. H. A. activities, 75. 

Historical congress at Rio de Janeiro, A. H A. spec. 
com. (1921), 23, 105; report (1920), 66, 90-91. 

Historical congresses, A. H. A. activities at, 75. 

Historical documentary publications, U. S., 77. 

Historical essays, A. H. A. memorial vol. aban- 
doned, 84. 

Historical manuscripts commission, members 
(1921), 20, 104; report (1920), 66, 83; policy com. 
recommendation, 68, 103; activities, 75-76. 


Historical Outlook, board of editors (1921), 22, 105, | 


107; account of, 79. 

Historical research, opportunities, 115-121. 

Historical Retrospect, Channing, 35. 

Historical Section, Navy Dept. See U. S. His- 
torical Section. 

Historical societies, bibliog. of pubs., 69; A. H. A. 
activities for, 79; Coordination within the States, 
131,150. See also Conference of historical societies. 

Historical studies, policy com. recommendations, 
71. 

Historical study of colonies and dependencies, A. 
H. A. spec. com. (1898-1900), 82. 

History and education for citizenship in the schools, 
conference on rept. of A. H. A. com. (1920), 37, 
38-39, 107; A. H. A. com. report (1920), 66, 91-04; 
discharge of com., 103, 106. 

History courses, 91-92. 

History of Labor in the United States, Commons, 161, 

History of Plymouth Plantation, Bradford, 215-216. 

HistoRY OF THE RANCH CATTLE INDUSTRY IN 
OKLAHOMA, Dale, 307-822. 

History of the Town of Southampton (N. Y.), Adams, 
151. 

‘History Teachers’ Magazine, account of, 79. 

History teaching in the schools, A. H. A. com. 
(1921), 22, 39, 108; policy com. recommendations, 
70, 103; account of committees, 78. 

Hockett, Homer C., American Background of Fed- 
eralism, 46. 

Hodder, Frank H., chairman nominations com. 
(1921), 20, 52, 57; unable to serve on Justin Winsor 
prize com., 83; of nominations com. (1920), 99. 

Holbrook, Franklin F., Collection of State War 
Records, 135. 


Holland Land Company, 290. 

Holt, Lucius H., EstaBLISHMENT OF A NEW 
POLAND, 43-44, 199-208. 

Holy Roman Empire, enlightened despotism in, 
193, 196. 

Hood’s Tennessee campaign, Hay, 66, 89, 105. 

Hoover collection, Lutz, 115-117. 

House, R. B., of military hist. com. (1921), 22, 104- 

Howe, Sheldon J., of membership com. (1921), 21, 
108. 

Howland, Arthur C., of service com. (1921), 22, 108. 

Huidekoper, Frederick L., Thirty-third Div. hist., 
147, 

Humphreys, David, agricultural gatherings, 300. 

Hunt, Gaillard, of hist. mss. comm. (1921), 20, 104; 
address, 36. 

Hunt, M. Berna, of membership com. (1921), 21, 
108. 

Hunt, R. D., Contribution of Political Science to 
Education, 122-123. 

Hunt, Capt. Thomas, visit to Plymouth, 214. 

Huntington Library collection of Am. hist., 119. 

Hutchinson, Anne, trial, 244. 

Illinois, war records collection, 136, 137, 138, 142, 143; 
posters, 144; newspapers, 144; roster, 147. 

Ulinois Manufacturers Assoc., 143. 

Illinois State Historical Library, Statistics rel. to 
Ill. and the War, 148; Documents rel. to Ill. and 
the War, 148. 

Importance of Economics in the Training and Teach- 
ing of History, Sumner, 123. 

Incas, Communistic System of the, Belaunde, 44. 

Indian Territory, cattle industry, 312. 

Indiana, war records collection, 136, 137, 141; pos- 
ters, 144; newspapers, 144; gold star vol., 146. 

Indiana Historical Commission, hist. of 5 Liberty 
loans, 148. 

Indiana State Historical Society, calendaring 
French archives, 133. 

Individual service records, 146-147. 

Influence of the Agricultural Fair upon American 
Society, 1880-1851, Kellar, 47. 

Ingersoll, Charles J., description of effect of em- 
bargo in Philadelphia, 260-261. 

Instituto Historico, 90. 

International language, 42, 179-186. 

International Molders’ Union, 159. 

International Research Council, com. on internati. 
auxiliary language, 186. 

International Typographical Union, 159. 

International Union of Academies, 71, 74. 

Iowa, war records collection, 136, 142, 146-147. 

Iowa and War, 145. 

Iowa Chronicles of the World War, 148. 

Iowa Indian Reservation, opened to settlement, 321. 

Iowa, State Historical Society of, calendaring 
French archives, 133; Jowa and War, 145; lowa 
Chronicles of the World War, 148. . 

James, Herman G., Recent Constitutional Changes 
in Latin America, 49. 


| 
| 
| 


INDEX 329 


Jameson, John Franklin, life councflor, A. H. A., 
13, 19; managing editor, board of editors, Amer- 
ican Historical Review (1921), 20; of publications 
com. (1921), 21, 104; chairman natl. archives com. 
(1921), 21, 104; chairman com. on obtaining tran- 
scripts from foreign archives (1921), 22, 104, 108; 
chairman service com. (1921), 22, 104; chairman 
documentary hist. pubs. of U. S. spec. com. 
(1921), 23, 105; delegate to Am. Council of Learned 
Socs., 60; Writings on Am. Hist., 77; Original 
narratives of Early Am. Hist., 81; report of nat. 
archives com. (1920), 88; report of London head- 
quarters com. (1920), 100; present at council 
meetings, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107; conf. of hist. socs. 
com. on coop. of hist. socs. and depts., report 
(1920), 132-134. 

Januszajtis, Colonel, attempted coup d'état, 206. 

Jaworski, 201, 202. 

Jefferson, Thomas, cyphers of aristocracy, 246; 
embargo, 247. 

John of Salisbury, 183. 

John Wesley, Tory, Sweet, 46. 

Johnson, Henry, chairman hist. teaching in the 
schools com. (1921), 22, 39, 108; Local and Am, 
Hist. in Grades II- VI, 39; World Hist. in the High 
School, 39; courses in hist., 93. 

Johnston, Robert M., editor Military Historian and 
Economist, 80; chairman military hist. prize spec. 
com. (1916-1918), 89. 

Jones, Captain, of Mayflower, 45, 217. 

Jones, Breckinridge, of lecal arrangements com. 
(1921), 20, 108. 

Jones, Mrs. Robert M., of local arrangements com. 
(1921), 20; 108. 

Joule, James P., work in electromagnetism, 276. 

Journal of European history, A. H. A. com. on 
(1916), hist. studies proposal, 103. 

Jusserand, Jean J., pres. A. H. A. (1921), 13, 19, 52, 
57; of agenda com. (1921), 19, 107; chairman ap. 
pointments com. (1921), 19, 108; chairman writing 
of hist. spec. com. (1921), 23, 51, 105; reception to 
A. H. A., 35; present at council meeting, 100. 

Justin Winsor prize, com. (1921), 20, 104; conditions 
of award, 27; list of awards, 27-28; report (1920), 
66, 83, 101; policy com. recommendation, 71; 
account of, 80. 

Kakowski, Archbishop, 204. 

Kalm, Peter, fallow fields, 287. 

Kansas State Historical Society, calendaring French 
archives, 133. 

Kellar, Herbert A., Influence of the Agricultural 
Fair upon American Society, 1830-1851, 47. 

Kelsey, Rayner W., DESCRIPTION AND TRAVEL AS 
Source MATERIAL FOR THE HISTORY OF EARLY 
AGRICULTURE IN PENNSYLVANIA, 283-292. 

Kelvin, Sir William Thomson, Lord, work in 
electromagnetism, 277. 

Kendrick, Benjamin B., AGRARIAN DISCONTENT 
IN THE SOUTH: 1880-1900, 48-49, 265-272. 

Kennelly, Arthur E., DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRO- 
MAGNETISM DURING THE LAST HUNDRED YEARS, 
40, 273-281. 

Kentucky, war records collection, 136, 138. 

Ket’s Rebellion, 191. 

Kholm, ceded to Ukrainia, 204. 

Kiev, Russia, 165, 167. 


Kimball, Fiske, Architecture in the History of the 
Colonies and of the Republic, 46. 

Kinnicutt, Lincoln N., SETTLEMENT OF PLYMOUTH 
CONTEMPLATED BEFORE 1620, 45, 209-221. 

Klein, Julius, sec. hist. congress at Rio de Janeiro 
spec. com. (1921), 23, 105; Monroe Doctrine as a 
Regional Understanding, 49; report Hist. cong. at 
Rio de Janeiro spec. com. (1920), 90-91. 

Knowlton, Daniel C., of board of editors, Hist. 
Outlook (1921), 22, 105, 107; of hist. teaching in 
the schools com. (1921), 22, 108; address, 39; course 
in modern world hist., 92. 

Korff, Baron, chairman of joint session, 35. 

Krey, A. C., of membership com. (1921), 21, 104, 
(1920), 84. 

Kucharewski, of Polish cabinet, 204. 

Labor, hist. of, in U. S., 161. 

Larned, J. N., Literature of Am. Hist., 77. 

Larson, Laurence M., of membership com. (1921), 
21, 108; of board of editors, Hist. Outlook (1921) 
22, 105. 

Latin America, Recent Constitutional Changes, 49. 

Latin American history, Opportunities for Historical 
Research, 117-118. 

LATIN AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE IN THE 
MIDDLE AGES, Paetow, 42, 179-186. 

Laurens, Henry, business letters, 45. 

League of Nations, Pan Americanism and, 49. 

Learned, H. Barrett, letter transmitting ann. rept., 
7; of disposition of records spec. com. (1921), 20; 
chairman publications com. (1921), 21, 104; chair- 
man local arrangements com. (1920), 35; report of 
publications com. (1920), 83-84; present at council 
meeting, 100. 

Lebanon, Pa., Cazenove journal, 291. 

Leebrick, K. C., Brief Statement of the Opportuni- 
ties for Historical Research in Hawaii, 119-121. 

Legal history, A. H. A. com. (1897), 82. 

Leiper, Thomas, statement of effect ofgmbargo, 255. 

Leland, Waldo G., chairman disposition of records 
spec. com. (1921), 20; of public archives comm. 
(1921), 22, 104; of com. on obtaining transcripts 
from foreign archives (1921), 22, 104; at meeting of 
policy com., 67; activities of A. H. A (1884-1920), 
73-82; at meeting of membership com., 84, 85; 
report of disposition of records com. (1920), 102; 
of univ. center for higher studies in Washington 
¢ ~ og 105; com. of one on reduced railroad rates, 


Leo, Doctor, 201. 

Liberty loans, Ind., 148. 

Librarian of Congress. See U. 8. Librarian of 
Congress. 

Lighthouse Service. See U. 8. Lighthouse Service. 

Lima, Manoel de Oliveira. See Oliveira Lima, 
Manoel de. 

Lincoln, Natalie S., of hereditary patriotic socs. 
com. (1921), 22, 108. 

Lingelbach, William E., of nominations com. (1921), 
20, 52, 57; present at council meetings, 100, 102, 
103, 105. 

List of Commissions and Instructions to Colonial 
Governors, 76. 

List of Journals and Acts of Colonial Legislatures, 76. 

List of Representatsons and Reports of the Board of 
Trade, 76. 

Literature of American History, Larned, 77. 


| 
| 


330 INDEX 


Livingstone, Robert R., agricultural gatherings, 300. 

Local and American History in Grades II-VI, 
Johnson, 39. 

Local com. of A. H. A. (1921), 20, 108. 

Lodge, Henry C., of documentary hist. pubs. of the 
U. 8. com. (1921), 105. 

Logan, John H., of membership com. (1921), 21, 108. 

Logan, William, drill plow, 301. ; 

London Company, negotiations with Pilgrims, 218. 

London headquarters, A. H. A. com. on (1920), dis- 
charged, 65; purpose of, 74; final report, 100, 101. 

Long, Breckenridge, of local arrangements com. 
(1921), 20, 108. 

Lortchins, C. G., report of Am. Audit Co. on A. H. 
A., finances, 63-65. 

Louis VII, king of France, expelled foreign students, 
183. 

Louisiana Historical Society, calendaring French 
archives, 133. 

Lowell, A. L., Colonial Civil Service, 82. 

Lubomirski, Prince, 204. 

Lutz, Ralph H., Spartacist Uprising in Germany, 43; 
paper on Hoover collection, 115-117; chairman P. 
C. B. nominations (1920), report, 121. 

Luxemburg, aspirations, 4. 

Lydecker, Robert C., Archives of Hawaii, 121. 

McFayden, Donald, Growth of Autocracy in the 
Roman Empire, 41. 

McQGuire, Constantine E., of hist. congress at Rio 
de Janeiro spec. com. (1921), 23, 105. 

MclIiwain, Charles H., of Herbert Baxter Adams 
prize com. (1921), 20 104. 

McKinley, Albert E., of service com. (1921), 22, 108; 
managing editor, board of editors, Hist. Outlook 
(1921), 22; of hist. teaching in the schools com. 
(1921), 22, 108; Suggestions and Plans for State and 
Local Publications of War History, 37, 131; sec. 
Natl. Assoc. of State War Hist. Organizations, 85; 
PROGRESS JN THE COLLECTION OF Wak HISTORY 
RecorDs BY STATE WAR HISTORY ORGANIZA- 
TIONS, 145-152. 

Mackoy, Harry B.., of hereditary patriotic socs. com. 
(1921), 22, 108. 

McLaughlin, Andrew C., life councilor, A. H. A., 
14, 19. 

McMaster, John B., life councilor, A. H. A., 13, 19; 
present at council meeting, 100. 

MeMillan, Mrs. N. A., of local arrangements com. 
(1921), 20, 108. 

Macmillan Co., loss on publication of Am. Hist. 
Rer., 82 

Mandates, 44. 

Manual of Historical Literature, Adams, 51, 69, 77, 95. 

Manual of historical literature, A. H. A. spec. com. 
(1920), 51; report, 66, 94-99; continuing, 103; pub- 
lication authorized, 107. 

Manufacturing, Control by Confederate Government, 
48. 

Maria Theresa, enlightened despotism of, 190, 196, 
197. 

Marine Corps. See U.S. Marine Corps. 

Marshall, Thomas M.., of program com. (1921), 20, 
104; of local arrangements com. (1921), 20, 108. 

Martin, Percy A., act. chairman hist. congress at 
Rio de Janeiro spec. com. (1921), 23, 105, (1920), 90; 
Opportunities for Historical Research in Latin 
Amer, Hist., 117-118; of P. C. B. resolutions com. 
(1920), 121. 


Maryland, war records collection, 136, 137, 140; 
Council of Defense files, 143; war history, 149. 

Massachusetts, hist. material, 151. 

Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, 
299. 

Mather, Cotton, Two Brief Discourses, 230, 231; 
Serviceable Man, 231; Frontiers Well Defended, 244. 

Mather, Increase, diary, 242. 

Maxwell, James C., electromagnetic waves, 278 

Mayer, work in electromagnetism, 277. 

Mayflower, Pilgrim ship, 211, 216, 217, 218, 220, 239. 

Mayflower compact, 245. 

Meany, Edmond S., documentary hist. of States. 
proposed, 81-82; discussion of federation of hist. 
socs., 85. 

Meat packing, 47-48. 

Medicine, medieval, 40, 173-178. 

Medieval industry, 42. 

Medieval medicine and science, 40, 173-178. 

Meetings and relations, A. H. A. com. (1921), 19,108. 

Melvin, Frank E., of membership com. (1921), 21, 
104, (1920), 84. 

Membership, A. H. A. com. (1921), 21, 104, 108; 
(1920) report, 66, 84-85. 

Merriman, Roger B., of bibliog. of modern English 
hist. spec. com. (1921), 22, 105. 

Michigan, war records collection, 136, 137. 

Michigan Historical Society, calendaring French 
archives, 133. 

Milan Decree, 253. 

Miles, John D., rental of Indian lands, 314, 315. 

Military Historian and Economist, 80. 

Military history, A. H. A. com. (1921), 22, 104; 
policy com. recommendations, 70-71, 103; A. H. A. 
activities, 80. 

Military history prize, A. H. A. spec. com. (1920), 
final report, 89-90, 105. See also Robert M. 
Johnston prize. 

Minnesota, war records collection, 136, 137, 143; war 
relics, 144; war history, 145, 148. 

Mississippi, State Dept. of Archives and Hist., cal- 
endaring French archives, 133. 

Mississippi Valley, calendar of Parisian archives 
rel. to, 38, 79, 132. 

Mississippi Valley Historical Association, joint 
session with A. H. A. (1920), 34; activities, 73. 

Missouri, roster, 147. 

Missouri, state Historical Society of, calendaring 
French archives, 133. 

Mitchell, Margaret J., of membership com. (1921), 
21, 108 

Modell of Christian Charity, Winthrop, 232. 

Modern Language Association of America, com. on 
internatl. language, 186. 

Mohawk Valley Historical Association, 152. 

Monographie History of the U. S., 82. 

Monroe Doctrine as a Regional Understanding, 
Klein, 49. 

Moore, Charles, treas. A. H. A. (1921), 13, 19, 52, 
57; of agenda com. (1921), 19, 107; chairman 
finance cem. (1921), 19, 108; of natl. archives com. 
(1921), 21, 104; of documentary hist. pubs. of U.S. 
(1921), 23, 105; address, 36; report as treasurer 
(1920), 61-63; at meeting of policy com., 67; present 
at council meetings, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107. 

Moraczowski, premier of cabinet, 205, 206. 

Moran, Thomas F., of Justin Winsor prize com. 
(1921), 20, 104. 


| 

| 


INDEX 


Morehouse, Frances, courses in clvics and Am. 
hist., 92; payment to, 106. 

Mores, Marquis of, in ranch cattle business, 311. 

Morgan, Edwin V., of hist. congress at Rio de Ja- 
neiro spec. com. (1921), 23, 90, 105. 

Morgan, William T., English Political Parties and 
Leaders in the Reign of Queen Anne, 84. 

Morse, S. F. B., electromagnetic telegraph, 278. 

Morton, Nathaniel, Memorial, 217-218. 

Moses, Bernard, hon. chairman hist. congress at Rio 
de Janeiro spec. com. (1921), 23, 105; (1920), 90. 
Munro, Dana C., resigns from bd. of editors of Am. 
Hist. Review, 65; report of policy com. (1920), 
67-73; chairman journal of European hist. com. 
(1916), 103; of univ. center for higher studies in 

Washington com. (1920), 105. 

Muzzey, David S., of Herbert Baxter Adams prize 
com. (1921), 21, 104; HERITAGE OF THE PURITANS, 
45, 237-249. 

National archives, A. H. A. com. (1921), 21, 104; 
policy com. recommendations, 69,103; activities, 
76-77; report (1920), 88. 

National archives building, 88. 

National Association of State War History Organl- 
zations, joint meeting (1920), 37, 85, 131. 

National Catholic War Council, war records, 145. 

National Highways Association, 82. 

National Museum. See U. 8. National Museum. 

Nebraska, war records collection, 136. 

Neilson, Nellie, of Herbert Baxter Adams prize com. 
(1921), 21, 104. 

New England, Agricultural Revolution, 1815-1860, 
47. 

New Hampshire, war records collection, 137. 

New Jersey, war records collection, 136. 

New York (State), federations of hist. socs., 38; war 
records collection, 136, 138; posters, 144; newspa- 
pers, 144; roster, 147; war history, 148. 

New York Society for Agriculture, Arts and Manu- 
factures, 299. 

New York Society for Promoting Arts, 296. 

Newhall, Richard A., of membership com. (1921), 
21, 104, (1920), 84. 

Newspapers, war files, 144-145. 

Nominations, A. H. A. com. on (1921), 20; report 
(1920), 57, 99. 

North Carolina, war records collection, 136. 

North Virginia Company, possible understanding 
with Pilgrims, 219. 

Notestein, Wallace, of bibliog. of modern English 
hist. spec. com. (1921), 22, 105. 

Nussbaum, F. L., £. J. A. Ducher, 84 102. 

Oats, Cazenove journal, 290. 

Obtaining transcripts from foreign archives, A. H. 
A. com. (1921), 22, 104; policy com. recommenda- 
tion, 69, 103. 

Oersted, Hans C., discovers electromagnetism, 275. 

Ohio, war records collection, 136; newspapers, 144. 

Oklahoma, Hist. OF THE RANCH CATTLE INDUs- 
TRY, 307-322. 

Oliveira Lima, Manoel de, of hist. congress at Rio 
de Janeiro spec. com. (1921), 23, 105; Pan Ameri- 
canism and the League of Nations, 49. 

Olsen, Nils A., of program com. (1921), 20, 104. 

Opportunities for Historical Research in Latin Amer- 
ican History, Martin, 117-118. 

Orders in Council, 253. 


331 


ORIGIN OF THE RUSSIAN STARE ON THE DNIEPDR. 
Rostovtsev, 41-42, 163-171. 

Original Narratives of Early American History, 
Jameson, 81. 

Orvis, J. S., of membership com. (1920), 84. 

Ossetes, 170. 

Ostrogoths, 169. 

Ostrowski, Cownt, 204. 

Pacific Coast Branch, officers elected for 1921, 15, 
121-122; activities, 73; PROCEEDINGS OF SIx- 
TEENTH ANNUAL MEETING (1920), 113-127. 

Packard, Laurence B., of membership com. (1921), 
21, 108. 

Paderewski, of Polish Natl. Com., 201, 205; forms 
cabinet, 206; resigns, 207. 

Paetow, Louis J., LATIN AS AN INTERNATIONAL 
LANGUAGE IN THE MIDDLE AGEs, 42, 179-186. 

Palestine, Syria, and Mandates, Duggan, 44. 

Paltsits, Victor H., chairman public archives comm. 
(1921), 22, 104; proposed to abolish “‘primary,’’ 
52, 57, 58; report of nominations com. (1920), 57, 99; 
report of primer of archives com. (1920), 99. 

Pan Americanism and the League of Nations, Oli- 
veira Lima, 49. 

Panticapeum, 169. 

Parish, John C., of program com. (1921), 20, 104; of 
conf. of hist. socs. (1921), 21, 104; of conf. of hist. 
socs. com. on hndbk. of hist. socs. (1921), 21, 132; 
report of conf. of hist. socs. (1920), 85-88, 129-252, 

Patriotic societies, conference (1916), 80. See also 
Hereditary patriotic societies, A. H. A. com. 

Patuxet, 213. 

Paullin, C. O., of disposition of records spec. com. 
(1921), 20. 

Paxson, Frederic L., councilor, A. H. A. (1921), 14, 
19, 52, 57; of agenda com. (1921), 19, 107; of finance 
com. (1921), 19, 108; of com. to cooperate with 
Peoples of Am. Soc. (1921), 23, 108; report of 
Justin Winsor prize com. (1920), 83. 

Peace Conference at Paris, 1919, Polish interests 
before, 207. 

Penn, William, letter to James Harrison, 286. 

Pennsylvania, war records collection, 136, 137-138, 
139, 140, 141, 142, 143; posters, 144; war history, 145; 
roster, 147; DESCRIPTION AND TRAVEL AS SOURCE 
MATERIAL FOR THE HISTORY OF EARLY AGRI- 
CULTURE, Kelsey, 283-292. 

Peoples of America Society, A. H. A. spec. com. to 
cooperate with (1921), 23, 101, 106, 108. 

Peters, Richard, use of gypsum for fertilizing, 288. 

Petrie, George, of membership com. (1921), 21, 108. 

Pettus, Charles P., of local arrangements com. 
(1921), 20, 108. 

Philadelphia, Pa., war records collection, 138. 

Philadelphia Agriculture Society, Memoirs, 288. 

PHILADELPHIA AND THE EMBARGO OF 1808, Sears, 
47, 251-263. 

Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agricul- 
ture, 296, 297-298. 

Philip IV, king of France, ordered foreign students 
protected, 184. 

Photographs. See War photographs. 

Pilgrimage of Grace, 191. 

Pilgrims, circumstances of settlement, 217-221. 

Pilsudski, Gen., recruits Polish legions, 202; plan 
for Polish army, 203; imprisoned, 204; made chief 
of state, 204-205. 


332 


Piltz, of Polish Natl. Com., 201. 

Pittsfield, Mass., agricultural meeting, 1807, 301. 

Pliny, 175. 

PLYMOUTH, SETTLEMENT CONTEMPLATED BEFORE 
1620, 45, 209-221. 

Pocanawket Confederacy, 216. 

Poland, ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW, 43-44, 199-208. 

Policy, A. H. A., spec. com., report (1920), 50-51, 
67-73, 102-104; report adopted by executive com., 
102-104. 

Polish legions, 202. 

Polish National Council, 201. 

Polish Parliamentary Club at Vienna, memorial, 
203. 

Political Career of Ignatius Donnelly, Hicks, 48. 

Political science, contribution to education, 122-123. 

Posnania, 203, 205, 206, 207. 

Posters, war collections, 143-144. 

Potawatomi Reservation, opened to settlement, 321. 

Practical Godliness the Way to Prosperity, Whitman, 
231. 

Price fixing, Mass. colony, 233. 

Prichard, Walter, of membership com. (1921), 21, 
108. 

Primer of archives, A. H. A. spec. com. (1920), 76, 
report (1920), 99. 

Pring, Martin, return from Cape Cod Bay, 212; at 
New Plymouth, 213. 

Priscian, 185. 

Privy- Council Register, transcription of colonial en- 
tries, 81. 

Prize essays. See Herbert Baxter Adams prize.— 
Justin Winsor prize.—Military history prize.— 
Robert M. Johnston prize. 

Problem of Control in Medieval Industry, Evans, 42. 

Program of annual meeting, com. See Annual 
meeting of A. H. A., program com. 

PROGRESS IN THE COLLECTION OF WAR HIsTorRy 
Recorps BY STATE WAR HisTORY ORGANIZA 
Tions, McKinley, 145-152. 

PROGRESS IN THE COLLECTION OF WAR RECORDS 
BY StaTE WAR HISTORY ORGANIZATIONS, Singe- 
wald, 37, 131, 135-145. 

Protestant Reformation in England, 191. 

Protestantische Ethik und der ‘Geist’ des Kapi- 
talismus, Weber, 226, 228-230. 

Prothero, George W., editor bibliog. of modern 
English hist., 88. 

Public archives commission, members (1921), 22, 
104; policy com. recommendations, 68-69, 103; 
activities, 76. 

Public Health Service. See U. 8S. Public Health 
Service. 

Publications, A. H. A. com. (1921), 21, 104; report 
(1920), 66, 83-84. 

PuRITAN COLONIES, CAPITALISTIC AND SOCIALISTIC 
TENDENCIES, Day, 44-45, 223-235. 

PURITANS, HERITAGE OF THE, Muzzey, 45, 237-249. 

Putnam, Eben, of military hist. com. (1921), 22, 104. 

Putnam, Herbert, presides at joint session, 34. 

Putnam, Ruth, councilor, A. H. A. (1921), 14, 19, 
52, 57; of meetings and relations com. (1921), 19, 
108; Aspirations of One Small State, 43; present at 
council meetings, 100, 102, 103, 105, 107. 

Quaife, M. M., of bibliog. of Am. travel subcom. 
(1921), 22, 108. 

Railroad Administration. See 
Administration. 


U. 8. Railroad 


INDEX 


Railroad rates, A. H. A. com. on reduced (1921), 107. 

Rammelkamp, Charles H., of membership com. 
(1921), 21, 108. 

Ramsdell, Charles W., of membership com. (1921), 
21,104, (1920), 84; Control of Manufacturing by the 
Confederate Government, 48. 

Ranch cattle industry, 307-322. 

Randall, J. C., of membership com. (1920), 84. 

Randolph, Peyton, against resolutions condemning 
stamp act, 246. 

Read, Conyers, chairman Herbert Baxter Adams 
prize com. (1921), 20, 104; of bibliog. of modern 
English hist. spec. com. (1921), 22, 105. 

Recent Constitutional Changes in Latin America, 
James, 49. 

RECENT REALIGNMENT IN THE History oF MEDI- 
EVAL MEDICINE AND SCIENCE, Garrison, 40, 
173-178. 

RECOGNITION OF ECONOMIC History AS A DISTINCT 
SuBJeEctT, Day, 155-156. 

Records. See Disposition of records, A.H. A. com. 
on.—Revolutionary records, A. H. A.com.—War 
records. 

Red Cross, war records, 141, 142. 

Red Cross in Iowa, 148. 

Reinsch, Paul S., pres. Am. Political Science Assoc., 
34; Secret Diplomacy: How Far Can It Be Elim- 
inated? 35. 

Religious Influences in the History of the West, Young, 
123-124. 

Research in American and European history, 
A. H. A. com. (1912), 81. 

Revolution of 1688, 191. 

Revolutionary records, A. H. A. com. (1914), 80. 

Rhode Island, war records colleetion, 137. 

Rhodes, James F., life councilor, A. H. A., 13, 19. 

Rice, Harry M., report of Am. Audit Co. on A. H. 
A. finances, 63-65. 

Richthofen, Baron, in ranch cattle business, 311. 

Rio de Janeiro. See Historical congress. 

Rising of the North, 191. 

Robert M. Johnston prize, award of, 51, 66, 105; 
policy com. recommendation, 71, 103; account of, 
80-81. 

Robinson, James H., Free Thought, Yesterday and 
To-day, 40. 

Robinson, Morgan P., of membership com. (1921), 
21, 108. 

Roman alphabet, 183. 

Roman Empire, Growth of Autocracy, 41. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, in ranch cattle business, 311. 

Ross, Edward A., speech, 34. 

Rostovtsev, Mikhail, OriGIN oF THE RUSSIAN 
STATE ON THE DNIEPER, 41-42, 163-171. 

Rowcroft, Capt., Dermer fails to meet, 215. 

Rowe, Leo S., director gen. Pan Am. Union, 35, 90. 

Rowland, Dunbar, chairman of com. on calendar of 
documents in Parisian archives rel. to Miss. Val- 
ley, 38; chairman of conf. of hist. socs. com. on 
coop. of hist. socs. and depts., report (1920), 132- 
134. 

Royal Historical Soc., 100. 

RvssIAN STATE ON THE DNIEPER, Rostovtsev, 
41-42, 163-171. 

Sac and Fox Reservation, opened to settlement, 321. 

Sale of War Bonds in Iowa, 148. 

Salerno, medical school at, 176. 

Sapieha, Prince, attempted coup d’état, 206. 


i 


INDEX 


Schafer, Joseph, chairman conf. of hist. socs. com. 
on bibliog. of hist. socs. (1921), 21, 132; Wis. 
Domesday Book, 38; of Wis. State Hist. Soc., 85; 
seport hist. and educa. in the schools com. (1920), 
91-93; present at council meeting, 100; Coordina- 
tion of Historical Societies within the States, 131, 150. 

Schmidt, Louis B., AGRICULTURE AS A FIELD FOR 
Hist. RESEARCH (abstract), 161-162. 

Schmitt, Bernadotte E., of Herbert Baxter Adams 
prize com. (1921), 21, 104. 

Schouler, James, memorial, 57, 58, 101; portrait, 100. 

Schurz, William S., of hist. congress at Rio de 
Janeiro (1921), 23, 105. 

Science, medieval, 40, 173-178. 

Scott, Arthur P., of membership com. (1921), 21, 
104, (1920), 84. 

Sears, Louis M., of membership com. (1921), 21, 
108; PHILADELPHIA AND THE EMBARGO OF 1808, 
47, 251-263. 

Secret Diplomacy: How Far Can It Be Eliminated, 
Reinsch, 35. 

Service, A. H. A. com. on (1921), 22, 104, 108; policy 
com. recommendations, 72, 104. 

Serviceable Man, Mather, 231. 

SETTLEMENT OF PLYMOUTH CONTEMPLATED BE- 
FORE 1620, 45, 209-221. 

Seven Years’ War, 196. 

Seventy-ninth Division, orders and messages, 140. 

Seydler, von, cabinet, 204. 

Seymour, Charles, of program com. (1921), 20, 104. 

Shambaugh, Benjamin F., of bibliog. of Am. travel 
subcom. (1921), 22, 108; conf. of hist. socs. com. 
on coop. of hist. socs. and depts., report (1920), 
132-134, 

Shearer, Augustus H., of membership com. (1921) | 
21, 108; of bibliog. com. (1921), 22, 104; sec. of conf. 
of hist. socs. (1916), 86, 87; proposed manual of 
hist. lit., 95-97. 

Sheridan, Gen., quiets Cheyenne-Arapaho Reserva- 
tion, 315. 

Shipman, Henry R., of bibliog. com. (1921), 22, 104; 
proposed manual of hist. lit., 95-97. 

Shipping Board. See U.S. Shipping Board. 

Short, William, effect of embargo in Philadelphia, 
261. 

Shotwell, James T., councilor, A. H. A. (1921), 14, 
19, 52, 57; of meetings amd relations com. (1921), 
19, 108. 

Show, Arley B., resolutions on death of, 121. 

Siebert, Wilbur H., of Herbert Baxter Adams 
prize com. (1921), 21, 104. 

Signal Corps. See U.S., Signal Corps. 

Sin and Danger of Self-Love, Cushman, 229. 

Singer, Dorothea W., catalogued mss. of Middle 
Ages, 178. 

Singewald, Karl, PROGRESS IN THE COLI ECTION OF 
WaR REcORDsS BY STATE WAR HISTORY ORGAN- 
IZATIONS, 37, 131, 135-145. 

Sinn Fein, Turner, 43. 

Sioussat, Mrs. Albert, patriotic societies, 152. 

Sioussat, Annie L., of hereditary patriotic socs. 
¢gom. (1921), 22, 108. 

Sioussat, St. George L., councilor, A. H. A. (1921), 
14, 19, 52, 57; of finance com. (1921), 19, 108; present 
at council meeting, 107. 

Skirment, of Polish Natl. Com., 201. 

Skulski, resigns, 207. 


333 


Slave Trade into South Carolina before the Revolution, 
Donnan, 45. 

Slavs, 166, 170. 

Sloane, William M.., life councilor, A. H. A., 14, 19. 

Smith, Capt. John, sent to north part of Va., 213- 
214, 220; attempted settlement in New England, 
214, 215. 

Smith, Justin H., chairman hist. mss. comm. 
(1921), 20, 104; of publications com. (1921), 21, 
104; report of hist, mss. comm. (1920), 83. 

Sobanski, of Polish Natl. Com., 201. 

Social Sciences and Education for Citizenship in the 
Schools, Bliss, 124. 

Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufac- 
tures and Commerce, 295. 

Soranus, 175. 

South, AGRARIAN DISCONTENT, 48-49, 265-272. 

South Carolina, Slave Trade before the Revolution, 
Donnan, 45. 

South Carolina Agricultural Society, 296, 299. 

South Carolina Gazette, 45. 

South Dakota, war records collection, 137. 

South Virginia Company, negotiations with Pil- 
grims, 218. 

Southampton, N. Y., hist., 151. 

Southern History Association, activities, 74. 

Sparks, Jared, tribute to Puritans, 248. 

Spartacist Uprising in Germany, Lutz 43. 

Spaulding, Oliver L., fr., of natl. archives com. 
(1921), 21, 104; of military hist. com. (1921), 22, 104. 

Sperry, Earl E., of membership com. (1921), 21, 108. 

Squanto. See Tisquantum. 

State war records, collection of, 135. 

Statistics relative to Illinois and the War, 148. 

Steiner, Bernard C., of Justin Winsor prize com. 
(1921), 20, 104. 

Stewart, Anna, discussion of history teaching, 126- 
127. 

Stoddard, Solomon, God’s Frown in the Death of 
Usefull Men, 231. 

Streeter, Edward C., textual study of medieval 
medicine, 178. 

Study of History in Schools, 78. 

Study of History in the Elementary Schools, 78. 

Suggestions and Plans for State and Local Publica- 
cations of War History, McKinley, 37, 131. 

Sullivan, James, of service com. (1921), 22, 108; 
chairman conference of hist. socs. (1920), 37, 131; 
federations of hist. socs. in N. Y., 38, 152. 

Sumner, George S., Importance of Economics in the 
Training and Teaching of History, 123. 

Supreme National Committee in Poland, 201, 202, 
204. 

Surgeons, medieval, 176. 

Sweet, William W., of Justin Winsor prize com. 
(1921), 20, 104; John Wesley, Tory, 46. 

Swift, Eben, chairman military hist. com. (1921), 
22, 104. 

Syria, Palestine, and Mandates, Duggan, 44. 

Telegraph, industrial development, 277. 

Texas, war records collection, 136, 142, 143; posters, 
143; cattle raising, 310-311. 

Texas Historical Society, calendaring French arch- 
chives, 133. 

Texas Rangers in the Mexican War, Webb, 89, 105. 

Thayer, William R., life councilor, A. H. A., 14, 19. 

Theology, Explained and Defended in a Series of 
Sermons, Dwight, 231. 


| 


334 INDBX 


Thirty-second Division, history, 147. 

Thirty-third Division, history, 147. 

Thirty Years’ War, 194-195. 

Thomas, David Y., of membership com. (1921), 21, 
108. 

Thompson, Alexander, fertilizes fields, 287. 

Thompson, Frederic L., of membership com. (1921), 
21, 108. 

Three Bpisodes of New England History, Adams, 151. 

Throop, George R., of local arrangements com. 
(1921), 20, 108. 

Thurston, R. C. Ballard, of hereditary patriotic 
socs. com. (1921), 22, 108. 

Tisquantum, and settlement of Plymouth, 45, 212, 
213, 215, 216, 217. 

Treat, Payson J., vice pres. P. C. B. (1921), 15, 121. 

Treaties of Westphalia, 194. 

Treaty of Dresden, 196. 

Trenholme, Norman M., of program com. (1921), 
20, 104; of membership com. (1921), 21, 108. 

True, Rodney H., of publications com. (1921), 21, 
104; pres. Agric. Hist. Soc., 34; EARLY DEVELOP- 
MENT OF AGRIC. SOCS. IN THE U. &S., 293-306. 

Truman, Thomas, petition of distressed seamen, 
256. 

Tuell, Harriet, pres. New England Hist. Teachers’ 
Assoc., 39. 

Turner, Prof., Frontier in Am. Hist., 150. 

Turner, Edward R., Sinn Fein, 43. 

Turner, Frederick, J. life councilor, A. H. A., 13, 
19; address, 36; addresses, 243, 244. 

Turner, Robert, letter to Wm. Penn, 287. 

Tuttle, Julius H., of conf. of hist. socs. com. on 
bibliog. of hist. socs. (1921), 21, 132. 

Two Brief Discourses, Mather, 230, 231 

Ukrainia, Kholm ceded to, 204: 

Union Académique Internationale, 60. 

Union List ef Collections on European Hist. in Am 
Libraries, 77. 

United Mine Workers, 159, 160. 

U. S., hist. documentary pubs., 77; monographic 
hist., 82. 

U. 8. Adjutant-General, military record abstracts, 
138, 140, 146. 

U. 8. Bureau of Navigation, naval record abstracts, 
138. 

U. 8. Coast Guard, enrolled in Naval Reserve, 139. 

U. S. Committee on Public Information, publica- 
tions, 142. 

U.S. Council of National Defense, war records, 141. 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, bulletins, 142. 

U. 8. Food Administration, war records, 141, 143. 

U. 8. Fuel Administration, war records, 141, 143. 

U. 8. Historical Section, Navy Dept., A. H. A. 
com. to cooperate with, 106. 

U. 8. Librarian of Congress, vote of thanks to, 107. 

U. 8. Lighthouse Service, partly transferred to 
Navy Dept., 139. 

U.8. Marine Corps, military record abstracts, 138. 

U. §. National Museum, portrait of Jas. Schouler 
loaned to, 101. 

U.S. Public Health Service, part of military forces, 
139. 

U. S. Railroad Administration, war records, 141. 

U.S. Shipping Board, war records, 141. 

U. 8. Signal Corps, war photographs, 140. 


U. S. War Industries Board, war records, 141. 

U. 8. War Loan Organization, war records, 141. 

United States Food Administration in Iowa, 148. 

United States Policy with Regard to Alaska, Farrar, 
123. 

University center for higher studies in Washington, 
72, 81, 103; A. H. A. com. (1920), 105. 

Usher, Abbott P., address, 36; FIELD FOR THE 
TEACHING OF Economic HISTORY IN COLLEGES 
AND SECONDARY ScHoots, 156-159. 

Valla, Laurentius, Elegantiz Linguz Latin, 185. 

Van Laer, Arnold J. F., of public archives comm. 
(1921), 22, 104. 

Van Nostrand, J. J., jr., sec.-treas. P. C. B. (1921), 
15, 121; of membership com. (1921), 21, 104, (1920), 
84. 

Van Tyne, Claude H., of board of editors, Am. 
Hist. Rev. (1921), 20. 

Venetian Republic, quarantine, 177. 

Vesalius, 176. 

Vignaud, Henry, birthday greetings, 60. 

Villa Dei, Alexander de, Doctrinale, 185. 

Vincent, John M., offers memorial of James 
Schouler, 57. 

Vinci, Leonardo da, 176. 

Vines, Richard, attempted settlement in New Eng- 
land, 214. 

Violette, Eugene M., of hist. teaching in the schools 
com. (1921), 22, 108. 

Virginia, war records collection, 136, 141; war his- 
tory, 145. 

Visigoths, 169. 

Walcott, Charles D., letter of submittal to Cong., 3. 

Walker, Williston, of board of editors, Am. Hist. 
Rev. (1921), 20, 65. 

Walsh, J. J., speech, 34; pres. Am. Catholic Hist. 
Assoc. (1921), 34. 

Walsh, James J., textual study of medieval medi- 
cine, 178. 

War History, Suggestions and Plans for State and 
Local Publications of, McKinley, 37, 131. 

War industries, records, 143. 

War Industries Board. See U. S. War Industries 
Board. 

War Loan Organization. See U. 8. War Loan Or- 
ganization. 

War photographs, 140, 143. 

War records, PROGRESS IN THE COLLECTION BY 
STATE WaR HISTORY ORGANIZATIONS, Singe- 
wald, 37, 131, 135-145; McKinley, 145-152. 

Wars of the Roses, 190-191. 

Warsaw, Poland, election, 206. 

Washington, Patty W., asst. sec.-treas. A. H. A. 
(1921), 19; present at council meetings, 100, 102, 
103, 105, 107. 

Washington University, invitation, 57. 

Watson, Elkanah, agricultural meeting, 300-301. 

Webb, Walter P., Tezas Rangers in the Mexican 
War, 89, 105. 

Weber, Max, Protestantische Ethik und der ‘ Geist’ 
des Kapitalismus, 226, 228-230. 

Webster, Daniel, speeches on the Puritans, 239. 

Welfare Campaigns in Iowa, Hansen, 148. 

Welfare Work in Iowa, 148. 

Welles; Sumner, act. chief Div. of Latin Am. 
Affairs. 90. 


} 

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INDEX 


Wertenbaker, Thomas J., chairman membership 
com. (1921), 21, 59, 66, 104; report of membership 
com. (1920), 84-85, 102; present at council meeting, 
102. 

Wesley, John, Calm Address to Our American Colo- 
nies, 46. 

Wesley, John, Tory, Sweet, 46. 

Westergaard, Waldemar C., of ex. com. P. C. B. 
(1921), 15, 122; presided at P. C. B. meeting (1920), 
115. 

Westermann, William L., of board of editors, Hist. 
Outlook (1921), 22, 105. 

Weymouth, explores coast of Maine, 212. 

What Happens in Battle, Greely, 89, 105. 

Wheat, Cazenove journal, 290. 

Wheel and Industrial Union, 272. 

Whincop, John, patent in name of, 218. 

Whitman, Practical Godliness the Way to Prosperity, 
231. 

Wibird, Parson, sermon, 247. 

Wichita, Kans., cattle drives to, 311. 

Wielopolski, 201. 

Willard, Samuel, Compleat Body of Divinity, 230. 

Wilson, George G., requests com. to cooperate with 
hist. sec. of Navy Dept., 106. 

Winston, James E., of membership com. (1921), 21. 
104. 

Winthrop, John, Modell of Christian Charity, 232. 

Wisconsin, war records collection, 136. 


335 


Wiseonsin Domesday Book, 38, 150. 

Wisconsin State Historical Society, calendaring 
French archives, 133; Wisconsin Domesday 
Book, 38, 150. 

Witos, Polish premier, 207. 

Women’s City Club, vote of thanks to, 107. 

Woodburn, James A., of membership com. (1921), 
21, 108. 

Woodward, Robert 8., pres. Carnegie Institution, 
40. 

World History in the High School, Johnson, 39. 

World War, check list, 69. 

Wrench, Jesse E., of membership com. (1921), 108. 

Writing of history, A. H. A. spec. com. (1921), 23, 51, 
105. 

Writings on American History, policy com. recom- 
mendation, 68, 70, 103; account of, 77, 83. 

Wyatt’s Insurrection, 191. 

Wynne, John P., of membership com. (1921), 21, 
108. 

Young, Arthur, agricultural instruction, 299. 

Young, Levi E., pres. P. C. B. (1920), 121; delegate 
to A. H. A. council meeting, 122; Religious In- 
fluences in the History of the West, 123-124. 

Y.M.C.A., war publications, 142; war records, 143. 

Zamojski, of Polish Natl. Com., 201. 

Zook, George F., of membership com. (1921), 21, 
104, (1920), 84; sec. local arrangements com. (1920), 
35. 


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